Author: Sasha Johnston, Parenting Research Centre
Led by the Parenting Research Centre and Emerging Minds, this paper summarises key evidence linking greenspace to child mental health and wellbeing. It calls for a collective approach to ensuring greenspace is part of everyday life for every Australian child. In keeping with this approach, the paper does not offer detailed greenspace design guidance but rather provides a foundation for action across sectors.
Who is this paper for?
Child mental health is everybody’s business. This paper is for policymakers, health and social services practitioners, service managers, organisational leaders, environmental advocates, architects, urban planners, economists, local government decision-makers, and anyone working with (or for) children and families.
Supporting resources
Use the following links to access a summary of this paper’s content, a practitioner guide and a series of posters to support the findings in this paper.
On this page:
- Executive summary
- The case for greener childhoods
- What do we know about child mental health in Australia?
- Who benefits when we support child mental health?
- Why does greenspace matter?
- Are Australian children spending time in greenspace?
- The policy landscape
- Unpacking the evidence: What do we know about greenspace and child mental health and wellbeing?
- Adults, parents, and communities benefit too
- Connection to culture and Country
- What about the broader benefits of greenspace?
- How does it work? Pathways from greenspace to child mental health and wellbeing
- What gets in the way of children and families spending time in greenspace?
- From evidence to (collective) action
- Key solutions
- The natural next step
- References
For generations, Australian children have found joy, freedom, and connection in nature. Yet today, many are growing up with fewer opportunities to experience the benefits of time outdoors. Despite growing evidence that greenspace supports children’s mental health and wellbeing, the majority of children are not playing outside on most days, and between 2013 and 2020, greenspace declined in most Australian capital cities (Australian Conservation Foundation [ACF] & Monash Climate Change Communication Research Hub [MCCCRH], 2021; The Royal Children’s Hospital National Child Health Poll [TRCHNCHP], 2022).
A substantial body of evidence shows that greenspace promotes play, connection, and relaxation, and makes our neighbourhoods healthier places to live (e.g. Christian et al., 2015; Markevych et al., 2017; Putra et al., 2020; World Health Organization [WHO], 2016). It makes sense, then, that greenspace supports positive mental and physical health for children and adults (e.g. Bratman et al., 2019; Caryl et al., 2024; Feng & Astell-Burt, 2017a; Fyfe-Johnson et al., 2021; Gianfredi et al., 2021; WHO, 2016; Yang et al., 2021; Zare Sakhdivi et al., 2023).
The link between greenspace and positive child mental health matters – positive mental health and wellbeing helps children build relationships, explore the world around them, meet life’s challenges, engage in learning experiences, and regulate emotions. It’s key to healthy development, which lays the foundation for good mental and physical wellbeing across the lifespan (WHO, 2016).
Ensuring children can spend time in greenspace is therefore an important part of supporting healthy development. Yet, factors like a lack of access to greenspace, the quality or design of local greenspace, the rising cost of living, parents’ working hours, and worries about safety can all get in the way of children and families spending time outdoors (Christian et al., 2015; Gemmell et al., 2022; Glass & Flemmer, 2024; Planet Ark, 2011; Veitch et al., 2006). Importantly, some children face more barriers than others. For example, children living in disadvantaged communities have less local greenspace than children in higher income areas, and it is often poorer in quality (Badland et al., 2010; Feng & Astell-Burt, 2017b).
These barriers and inequities reflect the outcomes of planning, development, and investment decisions. When persistent, they restrict children’s access to places that support their mental health and development. At the same time, they represent opportunities to act.
We’re calling for a collective approach to help realise our vision: a future where greenspace is part of everyday life for every Australian child. This means we’re calling on policymakers, designers, funders, planners, leaders, practitioners, and anyone working with or for children and families to take action now. Together, we can make the benefits of greenspace accessible to every Australian child and family.
Cross-sector solutions
The following solutions highlight practical opportunities for change across policy, planning, and service settings.
1. Ensure all children have quality greenspace within walking distance of their homes
Addressing inequities in greenspace access is key to ensuring all Australian children can enjoy the mental health and wellbeing benefits of natural spaces.
| Key solution | Example actions | Why? |
| Increase the quality and quantity of greenspace in disadvantaged, urban fringe, and other low-greenery areas | In urban fringe areas, preserving established trees and setting aside land for greenspace early in planning processes can ensure children and families have access to quality greenspace when they move into new developments. | Equitable distribution of greenspace ensures all children, families, and communities can benefit from nature. |
| Adopt and implement policies that mandate greenspace requirements in urban planning and development | Adopt minimum greenspace standards that require greenspace within walking distance of all homes. | The implementation of minimum standards can help increase greenspace where needed. It can also protect greenspace in the process of development and densification. |
| Make school grounds accessible to the community 24/7 | Develop programs that support schools to keep their grounds open after hours. | ‘Unlocking’ school grounds can make large greenspaces accessible to the community. In areas with less greenspace, this can represent a significant increase in the greenspace available for play. |
| Make education and health care settings greener | Plan for green schools, kindergartens, early childhood centres, and hospitals from the outset. Engage children, families, teachers, health care staff and practitioners, and the community in the design process to ensure spaces meet child, family, and community needs. | Greening the places children frequent helps increase the amount of time children spend in greenspace. |
2. Encourage children and families to spend time in greenspace
While living in green neighbourhoods is important, it’s only part of the picture. To experience the full benefits of greenspaces, children and families need to spend time in them – playing, picnicking, walking, biking, relaxing, and more. Yet, for many Australian children and families, time in greenspace is not part of the rhythm of daily life. This means initiatives that make it easy, safe, and enjoyable to spend time in greenspace have an important role to play in promoting positive child mental health and wellbeing.
| Key solution | Example actions | Why? |
| Make greenspaces inclusive, enjoyable, and engaging for children, young people, parents, and grandparents | Invest in and encourage the development of greenspace that meets the needs of people of all ages, abilities, and cultural backgrounds. | When greenspaces are welcoming and engaging for everyone, it’s easier for children and families to spend more time together in nature. |
| Make greenspace come alive with things to do, see, and explore | Develop initiatives that encourage children and families to spend time in greenspace. For example, maps of local greenspaces, signs displaying nature play ideas, community events in green-spaces, or loan libraries for outdoor equipment. | For some children and families, a project, game, or event might unlock the door to spending more time in greenspace. |
| Make it easy and safe for children and families to get to green-space | Ensure greenspaces are accessible via safe walking and cycling paths and public transport. | Well-connected and safe networks of paths, lights, crossings, and public transport can make it easier and safer for children and families to get to greenspaces. |
| Make it easier for families to find time to spend in greenspace | Consider how initiatives like flexible work policies or staffed playgrounds could help children and families find time to spend in nature. | In a 2011 survey, around 1 in 4 Australian parents reported that they didn’t have time to play with their children outdoors (Planet Ark, 2011). |
| Build time in greenspace into children’s daily activities and routines | Deliver services in greenspace where possible. For example, run allied health sessions or playgroups in local parks. | Building time in greenspace into activities that children and families are already doing can make it easier for busy families to spend time outside. |
| Share the benefits of greenspace with children and families | Invest in and encourage initiatives like nature prescribing or public health messaging. | When children and families know about the benefits of greenspace for mental health and wellbeing, it can encourage them to seek out nature. |
Note: In keeping with a collaborative approach to promoting child mental health, the solutions and example actions presented here reflect both the evidence in this paper and themes from consultations with a range of subject matter experts and professionals. Further detail on proposed solutions can be found in the body of this paper.
We have a collective responsibility to ensure all children can explore, gather, create, imagine, move, and have fun in nature.
Cross-disciplinary action can help make this a reality for Australian children – now and in the future. Which brings us to the question:
What can you do to help make greenspace part of daily life for every Australian child?
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We are grateful to Professor Hannah Badland, Director, Social Equity Research Centre, RMIT and an ARC Future Fellow (FT230100131), Dr Karen Villanueva, Research Fellow, and Dr Amanda Alderton, Vice Chancellor’s Postdoctoral Research Fellow, also at the Social Equity Research Centre, RMIT, for their expert review and insightful feedback on an earlier draft of this paper.
We also thank the many professionals and subject matter experts who contributed their perspectives via consultations. Their experience and practical insights informed the recommendations in this paper.
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Literature search
The search used for the development of this paper was purposive and targeted rather than comprehensive or exhaustive. Systematic search and scoping review processes were not possible with time restrictions and the breadth of topics covered in this paper. A narrative review including good examples of high-quality evidence was deemed feasible. Sources of evidence included in the paper, in order of quality, are umbrella reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, high quality randomised controlled trials, and other research published in peer-reviewed journals. Where empirical literature was sparse, or where relevant, grey literature and policy documents were consulted. Additionally, a snowball search method was used to source relevant publications from identified literature. Electronic databases and Google Scholar were utilised. Titles and abstracts were screened initially; full articles were selected if determined suitable for inclusion.
Consultation
This paper proposes a collaborative approach to promoting child mental health via access to greenspace. To inform our understanding of the priorities, gaps, and opportunities, we consulted with a range of subject matter experts and professionals in nature and health, nature play, landscape architecture, education, psychology, social impact, and public health.
The current evidence
There is a substantial and growing body of evidence supporting a link between greenspace or nature exposure and child health (Fyfe-Johnson et al., 2021). Within this, the evidence is particularly promising for physical activity, cognitive, behavioural, and mental health outcomes (Fyfe-Johnson et al., 2021). The evidence stems from a variety of disciplines, including psychology, urban planning, social geography, public health, environmental epidemiology, environmental science, neuroscience, and more. While this ensures diversity in perspectives, it can also pose challenges. For example, differences in exposure measures can limit comparability across studies (Zare Sakhdivi et al., 2023).
Most studies on greenspace and child health are observational, and cross-sectional design is common. Experimental studies currently represent a smaller portion of the available evidence (Fyfe-Johnson et al., 2021), however, as the field grows, advances in methodologies, technology, and available data sets are fuelling new approaches to studying the link between nature and health (Chomley, 2021). Longitudinal studies, research in low-to-middle income countries, and studies that examine underlying mechanisms would strengthen the current evidence base (Zare Sakhdivi et al., 2023).
Despite the limitations noted, Fyfe-Johnson et al. (2021) – authors of one of the most comprehensive systematic reviews currently available on nature and child health – conclude:
We believe our review warrants pediatricians, public health practitioners, and policy makers claiming a solid and growing body of evidence for policies and practices that promote environmental justice and equitable nature contact for children where they live, play, and learn. (p. 78)
Our local parks and other greenspaces are a familiar backdrop to many Australian childhoods. They’re home to skate ramps, swings, and scorching hot slides; the setting for birthday parties, cricket matches, and barbecues – and wisely so. Research now suggests that time spent in greenspace is good for children’s mental health and wellbeing (e.g. Caryl et al., 2024; Fyfe-Johnson et al., 2021; Zare Sakhvidi et al., 2023).
Children growing up in Australia today – and in generations to come – must have access to spaces that nurture their mental health and wellbeing. This means they should know their local parks, ovals, waterfronts, forests, and bushland.
We can’t leave this to chance. Children living in disadvantaged neighbourhoods have less local greenspace than children in higher income areas, and it is often poorer in quality (Badland et al., 2010; Feng & Astell-Burt, 2017b). Rapid urbanisation means that many parts of the country have seen a decline in greenspace (ACF & MCCCRH, 2021). The majority of Australian children aren’t playing outside on most days (TRCHNCHP, 2022).
The good news is thoughtful action now can reverse these trends – and we’re surrounded by opportunities to make a difference.
We’re calling for a collective, cross-disciplinary approach – where greenspace decisions are made with child mental health in mind, and child mental health decisions are made with greenspace in mind. From policymakers to designers, planners, leaders, and practitioners, we have a collective responsibility to ensure children can explore, gather, create, imagine, move, and have fun in nature.
When we work together to ensure every child in every neighbourhood can feel nature’s benefits, we support the wellbeing of children today – and create a healthier, more connected future for all.
What do we mean by ‘greenspace’?
In this paper, ‘greenspace’ means natural and semi-natural spaces that are accessible to the public. Examples include parks, sports ovals, school playgrounds, gardens, urban bushland and forests, foreshores, community gardens, greenways (such as paths and cycleways), verges, and street trees and vegetation.
Our use of the term generally refers to spaces that can be used by children for play or recreation. This includes spaces that may not be considered public spaces by adults but nonetheless can be important play spaces for children (e.g. verges or street trees).
What is child mental health?
When we talk about child mental health, we’re talking about children’s social and emotional wellbeing. Child mental health is not just about mental illness – it is a continuum that spans positive mental health (feeling and functioning well), diagnosed mental health conditions, and everything in between (National Mental Health Commission [NMHC], 2021).
Good mental health is key to healthy development. It helps children build relationships, explore the world around them, meet life’s challenges, engage in learning experiences, and regulate emotions. Children’s mental health is shaped by the relationships, places, communities, and resources that surround them (Alderton et al., 2019). |
A public health approach to child mental health
A public health approach aims to promote the health and wellbeing of entire populations via a spectrum of initiatives – from addressing social determinants of health through to targeted interventions.
This paper describes key solutions and example actions that can, as part of a public health approach, promote mental health in infants and children. For example, quality greenspace, and initiatives that encourage use of greenspace, can make it easier for children to engage in play, which in turn can promote positive mental health and healthy development.
We do not suggest that greenspaces or related initiatives are appropriate stand-alone responses to supporting child mental health. Rather, we propose that greenspace is a key feature of neighbourhoods that support children’s health and wellbeing – and one that warrants attention as a lever for promoting child mental health.
Data from the second Australian Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing, conducted in 2013–14, suggests that almost 14% of 4–11-year-olds experienced a mental health disorder in the year prior to the survey (Lawrence et al., 2015).
Much has changed since this data was collected – children are growing up in a world where the cost of living is placing pressure on families, urbanisation is changing the face of neighbourhoods, and digital technology and social media are ubiquitous. Between 2020–21, many children and young people endured prolonged school closures and social disruption due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with significant impacts on their mental health (Lee, 2020; TRCHNCHP, 2020; 2023).
In a representative survey of Australian children and parents, one in three children aged 8–13 years experienced symptoms of at least one mental health problem (TRCHNCHP, 2023). Mental health outcomes also vary within the child population, with children facing disadvantage more likely to experience mental health problems than their more-advantaged peers (Afroz et al., 2024; Pillas et al., 2014).
So, while many Australian children enjoy good mental health, a significant number experience challenges – and more can be done to ensure every child and family has access to resources, supports, and spaces that foster social and emotional wellbeing.
It’s in everyone’s best interests to invest in the places, services, and systems that support child mental health. Children who experience mental health problems before age 14 are more likely to have mental health disorders as adults (Mulraney et al., 2021). Mental health problems in childhood can also impact education, employment, health and wellbeing outcomes across the lifespan (Berger et al., 2020).
A conservative estimate by the Productivity Commission (2020) suggests that mental illness costs Australia $200–220 billion per year – that’s $550–600 million per day. This figure includes public spending on mental health prevention and treatment – but much of the cost is associated with factors such as lower participation in work, education, and community, impacts on family and carers, poorer social, emotional, and physical health, and premature death (Productivity Commission, 2020).
Therefore, it makes sense that when we support children and families’ mental health, we all benefit – both now and in the future. Optimal mental health helps people feel healthy and well, build strong relationships, pursue what matters to them, and contribute more fully to their families, communities, and workplaces.
Greenspace encourages children to play and be active (Christian et al., 2015). It offers a place to connect with friends and nature, and to disconnect and unwind (Putra et al., 2020). It can cool the neighbourhoods that children live in, improve air quality, and reduce traffic noise (Markevych et al., 2017; WHO, 2016). It supports adult and community wellbeing (Holtan et al. 2015; McEachan et al., 2015; Weinstein et al., 2015), and it makes neighbourhoods more biodiverse and resilient in the face of natural disasters (Threlfall, et al., 2017; Sugar, 2021).
It makes sense, then, that a growing evidence base suggests that greenspace supports positive child mental health and wellbeing (e.g. Caryl et al., 2024; Feng & Astell-Burt, 2017b; Fyfe-Johnson et al., 2021; Zare Sakhdivi et al., 2023). This, together with its broader health benefits, makes greenspace an important feature of neighbourhoods that support children’s healthy development (e.g. Goldfeld et al., 2018; National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2023).
Yet, between 2013 and 2020, greenspace declined in most Australian capital cities (ACF & MCCCRH, 2021). Further, there is an inequitable spread of greenspace across Australian suburbs and cities (Hsu, et al., 2022). This makes it harder for some children and families to spend time in greenspace. For example, children living in disadvantaged areas have less access to greenspace than children in higher income neighbourhoods (Feng & Astell-Burt, 2017a).
To make the benefits of greenspace accessible to every Australian child and family, we must ensure it’s easy, safe, and fun to spend time in natural spaces. This means protecting current greenspace and creating new high-quality greenspaces. It also means investing in wrap-around strategies and initiatives that address barriers to access and use and make greenspaces enjoyable and engaging.
Money does grow on trees
The far-reaching and varied impacts of greenspace can make its economic value hard to quantify. For example, the feeling of awe that can stem from time in nature is difficult to reduce to a dollar value (WHO, 2023a). This means the most accurate picture of the value of greenspaces comes from combining peoples’ stories with other forms of data and knowledge (WHO, 2023a).
Even so, estimates based on ecosystem services and avoided health care costs in adult populations suggest that nature can produce significant savings. For example:
While these figures capture ecosystem services and avoided health care costs for adult populations, they also highlight the potential for investment in greenspace to generate savings via avoided child health care costs. Savings have the potential to be significant, given:
Given the current costs of child and youth mental health care to governments, and the potential economic upsides of prevention, investment in greenspace and related initiatives may present a cost-effective avenue to support the mental health and wellbeing of Australian children.
For more on assessing greenspace value, see Assessing the value of urban green and blue spaces for health and well-being by the WHO (2023). |
Outdoor play is ingrained in our national identity – but the amount of time children spend outdoors, both globally and in Australia, is declining (e.g. Clements, 2004; England Marketing, 2009; Planet Ark, 2011).
Australian parents report a striking shift in their children’s outdoor play when compared with their own childhood play. While 72% of parents remembered playing outside every day as children, only 35% reported that their children play outside daily (Planet Ark, 2011). This figure aligns with data from The Royal Children’s Hospital National Child Health Poll (2022), which showed that only 45% of Australian children played outdoors most days of the week. This was despite 80% of parents wanting their children to spend more time outdoors (TRCHNCHP, 2022). The poll also found that the number of children playing outdoors away from home (in the street, nature, or playgrounds) declined steadily as they got older, dropping from 45% of preschoolers to just 21% of teenagers.
While outdoor play does not always involve time in greenspace, these findings suggest that Australian children are spending less time in their local greenspaces than they did a generation ago. The reasons behind this trend are complex. Lack of access to greenspace, the quality of local greenspace, the rising cost of living, parents’ working hours, and parents’ worries about safety can all get in the way of children spending time outdoors (Christian et al., 2015; Gemmell et al., 2022; Planet Ark, 2011; Veitch et al., 2006).
The grass can be greener
These trends are reversible – and we’re surrounded by opportunities make a difference. Australia’s future can be one where every child enjoys the benefits of greenspace.
To make this happen, we need you. We need policymakers, designers, planners, and advocates who know their work impacts child mental health. We need organisation and service leaders who are on the look-out for opportunities to bring child mental health and greenspace agendas together. We need practitioners working with children and families to champion time in greenspace as a key building block for child mental health and wellbeing.
Of course, greenspace is not a cure-all – but it’s an important part of an ecosystem that supports the mental health of children and families. This means collaborative initiatives that protect and create natural spaces, make them child and family friendly, and encourage children and families to get outside have the potential to benefit everyone.
Greenspace and child mental health both feature in Australia’s policy landscape – but often separately.
The need for urban greenspace features across a range of planning and environmental policies at federal, state, and local levels, highlighting a growing awareness of both the benefits of greenspace and the pressures on urban land use.
The National Children’s Mental Health and Wellbeing Strategy calls for action across four focus areas – family and community, education settings, the service system, and evidence and evaluation (NMHC, 2021). Action in these areas is undoubtedly key to a system that supports child mental health, but the opportunities don’t stop there.
The evidence that greenspace is a key building block for child mental health and wellbeing is becoming difficult to ignore – and calls for an integrated approach to greenspace policies and initiatives in Australia are mounting (e.g. Bush, 2020; Tefera, et al., 2024; Villanueva et al., 2023; Williams et al., 2025).
Internationally, the importance of access to greenspace for children is acknowledged by the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goal 11.7, which states: ‘By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible green and public space, in particular for women and children, older persons, and persons with disabilities’ (UN, 2015).
Further, in their 2021 report The Necessity of Urban Green Space for Children’s Optimal Development, UNICEF links greenspace access to the fulfillment of several articles of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN, 1989), including:
- the right to health and health services (Article 24)
- the right to rest, leisure, and play (Article 31)
- the right to a standard of living adequate for the child’s development (Article 27).
For anyone working to improve outcomes for the environment, children or families, the link between greenspace and child wellbeing presents an opportunity. Whether you’re developing climate strategy, designing parks, developing school wellbeing initiatives, funding services, or working with children and families, recognising greenspace as a mental health asset can unlock partnerships that support better outcomes for our natural and built environment, and for child mental health.
Greenspace benefits children’s mental health and wellbeing
A substantial body of research suggests that when children live near, or spend time in, greenspace, they experience better mental health outcomes (e.g. Fyfe-Johnson et al., 2021; Zare Sakhdivi et al., 2023). The following are examples of this growing evidence base:
- Data from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children suggests children living in areas with more greenspace tend to experience better behavioural, emotional, and general wellbeing than those living in areas with less (Feng & Astell-Burt, 2017b).
- A nationally representative cohort study in Scotland found that spending time in natural environments was linked to improved child mental wellbeing. Modelling by Caryl et al. (2024) demonstrated that spending around 60 minutes per day in natural environments was associated with an approximately 50% lower risk of poor emotional and behavioural outcomes.
Children recognise the wellbeing benefits of nature
Children recognise the role in supporting their wellbeing (Arola et al., 2023). In studies that capture children’s voices, children report that nature and activities in nature (e.g. swimming, fishing, building sandcastles) can help them feel happier and improve their mood (Arola et al., 2023).
When asked to describe nature or its benefits, children mentioned feelings of happiness, calm, and freedom – and talked about seeking out nature for its wellbeing benefits (Collado et al., 2016; Tillmann et al., 2019). For example (Collado et al., 2016, p. 725; Tillmann et al., 2019, p. 712):
- ‘Nature makes people happy, that’s what it sort of means.’ – Boy, age 11 years.
- ‘I think about freedom, because nature is something big, you can relax there, you can talk to the plants and animals, and it helps you think.’ – Girl, age 12 years.
- ‘If I’m having a bad day, then, like, maybe I’ll go outside and feel better.’ – Girl, age 11 years.
Similarly, when children aged seven and eight were asked to draw their ‘happy place’, over half included nature and outdoor spaces in their drawings (Moula et al., 2021). Talking to their drawings, and the concept of wellbeing, children described relaxing in places where they could ‘see and smell the blossoms and the flowers’ and ‘see the rivers that make nice sounds’ (Moula et al., 2021, p.1664).
Taken together, qualitative research reviewed by Arola et al. (2023) highlights that children can describe their connection to nature and the benefits it brings – and that they actively reach for nature to help support their wellbeing (Arola et al., 2023; Tillmann et al., 2019).
Greenspace encourages outdoor play and physical activity
Play and physical activity are essential to children’s social, emotional, and cognitive wellbeing, general health, and development (Ginsburg, 2007; Bull et al., 2020). This is reflected in the UN’s Convention on the Rights of the Child, which enshrines children’s right to play (Article 31; UN, 1989), and the WHO’s recommendation that children and young people engage in an average of 60 minutes of physical activity each day (Bull et al., 2020). In Australia, only about 20% of children and young people meet this recommendation (Hesketh et al., 2022). This highlights a need for spaces and initiatives that encourage Australian children to play and be active.
When children have access to greenspace, they are more likely to play outside and engage in physical activity (Christian et al., 2015). Outdoor spaces with natural elements (e.g. rocks, sticks, mud, trees, streams, flowers, leaves) are often preferred by children and can encourage child-led, open-ended play (Casey & Robertson, 2019; Sandseter et al., 2020). This unstructured play (often referred to as ‘nature play’) tends to be imaginative, creative, social, and involve a healthy element of risk (Alla & Truong, 2024), making it important for children’s wellbeing and development.
Greenspace can support children’s physical health and development
By supporting children’s physical health and development, greenspace can help lay the foundation for good mental and physical wellbeing across the lifespan (WHO, 2016). Notably:
- Greenspace exposure has been consistently linked to children’s positive cognitive, language, motor, and social development (Zare Sakhdivi et al., 2023). For example, data from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children suggests that living near quality greenspace supports positive social behaviours in children and adolescents (Putra et al., 2021).
- Exposure to more greenspace during pregnancy is associated with positive birth weight outcomes (WHO, 2016; Ye et al., 2021; Zare Sakhdivi et al., 2023). This is significant given low birth weight is a strong predictor of poor lifelong health outcomes (WHO, 2016).
- Data from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children suggests that children living in areas with more, and higher-quality, greenspace experience better general health (Feng & Astell-Burt, 2017a).
- Growing up in greener neighbourhoods may support brain development (Dadvand et al., 2018). This may be partly explained by the opportunities for creativity, risk taking, mastery and discovery that greenspace presents (Dadvand et al., 2018).
| Key takeaway: Greenspace helps children feel healthy and well. It encourages them to play and be active and supports their development. Children recognise these benefits and seek them out. This means greenspace is a key part of neighbourhoods that nurture children’s health and wellbeing. |
Greenspaces support adults’ health and wellbeing
There is broad consensus that exposure to nature supports better physical and mental health outcomes in adults (e.g. Bratman et al., 2019; Gianfredi et al., 2021; WHO, 2016; Yang et al., 2021). For example:
- A Danish study of over 900,000 people found that growing up in greener areas was associated with better mental health in adulthood. This was true even after adjusting for factors like socio-economic status, urbanisation, and parents’ mental health history (Engemann et al., 2019).
- In a review of systematic reviews, adults’ greenspace exposure was linked to lower mortality and better cardiovascular health, metabolic health, mental health, sleep quality, and more (Yang et al., 2021).
- Access to greenspace has been linked to positive outcomes for pregnant women (WHO, 2016). For example, pregnant women living in greener areas were less likely to experience symptoms of depression, and this link was stronger in women with lower levels of education (McEachan et al., 2015).
These findings suggest that time in greenspace can also support parents’ wellbeing. This can make a difference to children’s wellbeing, as parents’ mental health when their children are young is a predictor of child mental health outcomes (Rioesco et al., 2020). Supporting parents’ wellbeing is therefore foundational to supporting children’s mental health – and greenspace offers an opportunity to do both.
Greenspaces support community wellbeing
Community wellbeing matters for child mental health. Close-knit communities can buffer the impacts of stressful events and neighbourhood disadvantage for children and young people (Brieant & Burt, 2025; Kingsbury, et al., 2020). This means that initiatives that promote community cohesion may be an effective route to supporting youth mental health (Brieant & Burt, 2025) – and evidence suggests that greenspace can bring communities closer. For example:
- When people could see nature from home, had quality nature nearby, and spent more time in nature, they were more likely to feel their community was close and cohesive (Weinstein et al., 2015). This link held true even when individual and community socio-economic status was considered (Weinstein et al., 2015). People’s sense of community cohesion was linked to higher happiness, less screen time, higher productivity at work, and environmentally friendly behaviour (Weinstein et al., 2015).
- People living in areas with more street trees were more likely to feel that their neighbourhood was close-knit, helpful, and trustworthy (Holtan et al., 2015). This was likely due to paths and outdoor spaces being made more pleasant by shade and greenery, drawing people outside and facilitating interactions with neighbours (Holtan et al., 2015). Tree canopy cover had a similar impact on community cohesiveness to well-established socio-economic factors like household income and education (Holtan et al., 2015). This means street trees may offer a relatively affordable path to strengthening community connections (Holtan et al., 2015).
| Key takeaway: Greenspace benefits adults’ health and wellbeing, including parents, grandparents, carers, and teachers. It can also help communities feel more connected. This matters for child mental health because children thrive when families feel supported, healthy, and well. |
Public open space and playspaces are essential cultural landscapes that provide Aboriginal people with opportunities for connection, cultural practice and learning. They are places for the ‘Sharing of Country’ and celebrating rich culture with everyone. (NSW Department of Planning and Environment, 2023, p. 52)
The enduring connection between Aboriginal peoples and lands now urbanised due to colonisation is often overlooked (Cumpston & Beer, 2019). But cities and urban land are also Country, and connection to Country is central to Aboriginal peoples’ health and wellbeing (Yashadhana et al., 2023).
In partnership with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families and organisations, Emerging Minds has developed a range of resources that provide information on the importance of culture and Country in supporting the social and emotional wellbeing of children and young people. For more information, see the following resources:
Greenspace can support environmental and economic health, too. These benefits are valuable in their own right, but many also represent pathways to better mental and physical health. For example:
- Urban greenery helps cool cities (Egerer, et al., 2024). This matters because cities are usually hotter than rural and regional areas, and extreme heat has negative impacts on mental health, mortality, electricity and internet stability, transport systems, productivity, and more (ACF & MCCCRH, 2021).
- Greenspace provides habitat for native wildlife and pollinators, making it key to conserving biodiversity in urban areas (Threlfall, et al., 2017).
- Greenspace can buffer the impacts of climate change by acting as a carbon sink (ACF & MCCCRH, 2021). Trees reduce carbon emissions indirectly – for example, by reducing urban heat and providing shade, trees can reduce air conditioner use (Moore, 2012).
- Urban vegetation helps control and filter stormwater. The City of London estimates that its trees capture more than three million cubic metres of water each year, saving over £1.5 million in stormwater management costs (Rogers, et al., 2015).
- Nature corridors and green paths provide attractive and safe settings for active travel (Scottish Government, 2019), which can encourage children and adults to walk and cycle.
- Urban orchards and community gardens can provide access to free or low-cost food to those in need, which increases food security (Turner-Skoff & Cavender, 2019).
These diverse benefits highlight how investment in greenspace can simultaneously advance multiple policy goals.
Pathways from greenspace to child mental health and wellbeing
Multiple pathways help explain how greenspace supports health, including mental health and wellbeing. Evidence from diverse disciplines points to three major pathways (Hartig et al., 2014; Markeyvch et al., 2017; Nyugen & Walters, 2024; Yang et al., 2021; Zare Sakhvidi et al., 2023) operating across the lifespan (Markevych et al., 2017). The following table outlines the three most proposed pathways.
| Pathway | Pathway in action |
| Reduction of environmental hazards: Greenspace may help improve factors such as air pollution, traffic noise, and heat. | Children attending schools with greener grounds and surrounding areas experienced better cognitive development. This was in part due to reduced traffic-related air pollution (Dadvand et al., 2015). |
| Capacity building: Greenspace can promote physical activity and social cohesion. | Positive social behaviours – like sharing, helping, comforting, and cooperating – were higher in Australian children who lived near better quality greenspace (Putra et al., 2021).
Fyfe-Johnson et al. (2021) found that greenspace was linked to higher rates of physical activity in children. |
| Capacity restoration: Greenspace may reduce stress and allow cognitive resources to be replenished. | Children who went for a walk in nature were better able to pay attention and apply their spatial working memory than those who went walking in an urban environment (Schutte et al., 2017).
When asked about nature’s benefits, one 12-year-old said, ‘It makes my brain work on things that I think about’ (Tillmann et al., 2019, p. 712). |
Child-focused conceptual models align with these proposed pathways. For example, Ye et al. (2022) focus on greenspace exposure mitigating air and noise pollution, as well as increasing physical activity, social cohesion, cognitive capacities, and microbial abundance.
These three pathways likely function in tandem (Hartig et al., 2014; Markevych et al, 2017). For example, playing in a green space may mean children engage in physical activity while simultaneously breathing cleaner air.
| Key takeaway: Greenspace creates opportunities for play, physical activity, and connection – for both children and adults. It helps make neighbourhoods healthier places to live by improving air quality and reducing urban heat and noise. It also offers a space to disconnect and unwind from the busyness of daily life. All of this adds up to help children and families feel healthy and well. |
The amount of time Australian children spend in greenspace is not only a matter of personal choice or family habits. Social, cultural, and systemic factors – like neighbourhood design, cultural attitudes to risk, and cost of living – can shape how much time children spend outdoors. For example:
- Urban planning and design: Poorly planned urban densification and sprawl can result in less greenspace (Cresswell, et al., 2021), which can make it harder for children to spend time outside. When children have access to greenspace, they are more likely to play outside and engage in physical activity (Christian et al., 2015). Yet, between 2013 and 2020, greenspace declined in most Australian capital cities (ACF & MCCCRH, 2021). With more than 90% of Australians living in cities and urban areas (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2019), this has significant implications for children.
- Parents’ ability to accompany children: Young children usually require supervision in greenspaces. This means that factors like parents’ long working hours, mental health challenges, tiredness, or a focus on immediate financial needs have the potential to limit outdoor play (Gemmell, et al., 2022). In a 2011 survey, around one in four Australian parents reported that they didn’t have time to play with their children outdoors (Planet Ark, 2011). With a rise in the number of working parents and an increase in working hours (Baxter, 2023), this figure may be higher today.
- Playground design: Playgrounds with limited accessibility and inclusivity features can pose barriers to outdoor play for children with disabilities (Glass & Flemmer, 2024; Tait et al., 2024). Despite national accessibility standards, a small-scale audit of playgrounds in NSW and VIC found that accessibility varied widely, with the authors calling for improvements to wayfinding, layout, signage, and ramp access to play equipment (Glass & Flemmer, 2024). Further, Tait et al. (2024) note that playgrounds can present social and sensory challenges for children with autism spectrum disorder and call for a universal design approach to playground development.
- Neighbourhood disadvantage: In a nationally representative Australian study, children living in more disadvantaged areas had less access to greenspace than children in higher income areas (Feng & Astell-Burt, 2017a). As neighbourhood disadvantage increases, children also tend to have less access to high-quality, child-friendly public open space and greenspace (Alderton et al., 2022; Feng & Astell-Burt, 2017a).
- A decline in children’s independent mobility: Australian children’s independent travel around their neighbourhoods appears to be on the decline (Schoeppe et al., 2016) – a trend that can limit their ability to access greenspace (Hand et al., 2018).
- Parents’ concerns about safety: In a 2011 Australian survey, 33% of parents indicated that concerns about crime and safety were a barrier to their children playing outside. Only 9% of parents felt this was a barrier when they were children (Planet Ark, 2011).
- Screen time: In the same survey, around 30% of parents reported their children were watching TV or playing computer games instead of playing outside (Planet Ark, 2011). Screen use is often considered parents’ responsibility, but multiple factors influence the amount of time children spend on devices – and the availability of greenspace may be one of them. A study in Scotland found that children who lived more than 20 minutes’ walk from greenspace watched over two hours more television per week when compared to children who lived five minutes’ walk or less from greenspace (Aggio et al., 2015).
These barriers point towards opportunities for policy, design, and practice initiatives that make it easier and safer for children and families to spend time in greenspace.
Digital technology as a stepping stone to nature
Greenspace creates opportunities for play, physical activity, and connection – for both children and adults. It helps make neighbourhoods healthier places to live by improving air quality and reducing urban heat and noise. It also offers a space to disconnect and unwind from the busyness of daily life. All of this adds up to help children and families feel healthy and well. |
Quality matters too
The amount of time children spend in greenspace is not just about the quantity near their homes – quality matters, too (Feng & Astell-Burt, 2017b). When parents feel that the nearby greenspace is of higher quality, they may be more likely to take their children there or encourage them to visit. This may explain why parent-reported greenspace quality is linked to better child mental health (Feng & Astell-Burt, 2017b).
What greenspace features matter for children and families?
Greenspaces that are welcoming for people of all ages and abilities can encourage children and families to spend time in greenspace.
For parents, perceptions of quality may be linked to infrastructure that increases child and parent comfort during visits – for example, seating and toilets (Goldfeld et al., 2018).
For older adults, features including walking paths, a peaceful environment, and shady trees encouraged them to visit parks – and to be active and social while they were there (Veitch et al., 2020).
For children, playgrounds have been shown to encourage both more park visits and more physical activity (Cohen et al., 2019; Veitch et al., 2018). When researchers asked Melbourne school children to rate park features based on whether they would encourage them to visit, be active, or socialise in parks, the adventure playground was rated highest across all three categories (Veitch et al., 2021).
Desirable playground features may vary across contexts and age groups, but a review of studies capturing children’s experiences of playing in outdoor playgrounds uncovered two themes (Wegner et al., 2023):
- Play is meaningful (and fun!) when the environment allows children to face challenges, experience mastery, shape their surroundings, and play with other children
- Variety is key – spaces of different sizes and functions, and playground elements that can be used in a variety of ways, added to the richness of children’s play and fostered inclusion.
| In a study on play spaces at early childhood centres, Ruby talks about how a tree surrounded by bush can be both relaxing and fun:
‘I come here to cool down … under the peppermint gumtree … This is my favourite spot … because it’s shady and under the leaves … it’s fun when it’s bushy cos we can hide … they can’t see me, ‘cos they’re saying, “Ruby, where are you?”’ (Moore et al., 2019, p. 948). |
For more on park features that encourage park visits, physical activity, and social interaction in Australian children and older adults, see this summary of findings from Deakin University’s ProjectPARKS.
Greenspace matters for child mental and physical health, and parental and community wellbeing. Bridging what we know with what we do requires action from policymakers, designers, funders, planners, leaders, practitioners, and anyone working with or for children and families. Cross-sector perspectives and initiatives are key to unlocking the full benefits of greenspace for child mental health.
We all have a role to play in supporting child mental health by making it easy, safe, and fun for Australian children to spend time in greenspace.
Our vision
We envision a future where greenspace is part of everyday life for every Australian child. The key solutions outlined in the following diagram intertwine to bring this vision to life.
These actions are supported by two key approaches:
- Health in All Policies
- partnership with children, families, and communities.
A Health in All Policies approach
Health in All Policies (HiAP) is about promoting healthy public policy. It is based on the understanding that health and wellbeing are not just the products of health care activities, but are influenced by a wide range of social, economic, political, cultural and environmental determinants of health. (Preventative Health South Australia, 2025)
The factors that help and hinder children’s ability to access and spend time in greenspace are spread across policy domains. This means a cross-sectoral approach is needed to realise a future where greenspace is part of everyday life for every Australian child.
In practice, this could look like:
- the collaborative development of frameworks that aim to jointly advance environmental and health goals (Healthy Parks Healthy People South Australia 2021–2026, created by SA’s Department for Environment and Water and Wellbeing SA [2021], is an example of a joint initiative between the health and environment sectors)
- urban planning and design policies that support the development of quality greenspace
- assessing transport and infrastructure policies with access to greenspace in mind (Government of South Australia & WHO, 2017).
Further resources include:
- Progressing the Sustainable Development Goals through Health in All Policies: Case studies from around the world by the Government of South Australia and WHO (2017).
- Working together for equity and healthier populations: Sustainable multisectoral collaboration based on health in all policies approaches by the WHO (2023b).
- Healthy built environment checklist: A guide for considering health in development policies, plans and proposals by the NSW Government Ministry of Health (2020). This is a practical tool designed to help those both inside and outside the health sector to assess the impact of built environment factors on health. It includes a checklist for open space and natural features.
- National Health and Climate Strategy by the Australian Government’s Department of Health and Aged Care (now known as the Department of Health, Disability and Ageing; 2023) – a notable example of an alternative to siloed policy (Williams et al., 2025). This strategy calls for a HiAP approach, emphasising that health equity and outcomes are shaped by factors far beyond our health system. Though its scope is broader than child mental health and greenspace, it offers a precedent that supports joined-up action across government and community sectors.
Partnering with children, families, and communities
Partnering with children, families, and communities in the design of greenspaces can help ensure these spaces meet the needs of people of all ages, abilities, and cultural backgrounds. Child and family-friendly parks, green walkways and cycleways, foreshores, and other natural spaces are key to a future where greenspace is part of everyday life for every Australian child.
Participatory design and planning processes can also benefit children. For example, by promoting:
- the development of problem-solving and communication skills
- cultural and civic understanding
- a sense of belonging and empowerment
- environmental responsibility and knowledge (Dominiak-Szymańska et al., 2023).
Approaches to design that meaningfully include children also align with Article 12 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which recognises children’s right to participate in decisions that affect them (UN, 1989).
Despite the benefits – to children, families, communities, and designers – children and parents are often not included in urban planning processes or the design of public spaces (8 80 Cities, 2017; Carroll & Witten, 2019; Dominiak-Szymańska et al., 2023). Cross-sector commitment to participatory practices can change this.
A variety of tools, approaches, and guides exist to support child, family, and community participation in design. For example:
- Voice of the child, a toolkit from the Centre for Community Child Health (n.d.).
- The Community-led co-design kit and Inclusive cities co-design kit from the Inclusive Design Research Centre (n.d.).
- Building better cities with young children and families from 8 80 Cities (2017). This report captures global case studies and best practices in engaging children and families in city planning.
1. Ensure all children have high-quality greenspace within walking distance of their homes
Addressing inequities in greenspace access is key to ensuring all Australian children can enjoy the mental health and wellbeing benefits of natural spaces.
1.1 Increase the quality and quantity of greenspace in disadvantaged, urban fringe, and low-greenery areas
| Who can make a difference? | Example actions | Why it matters |
| Policymakers | Invest in greening disadvantaged neighbourhoods, urban fringe areas, and other low-greenery areas.
Assess and design all policies with greenspace availability and child mental health in mind.
Require and/or incentivise developers to set aside ample land for greenspace (including active travel routes). |
Children in disadvantaged areas have less access to greenspace than children in more advantaged neighbourhoods (Feng & Astell-Burt, 2017a). This may contribute to and perpetuate child health inequities.
New urban fringe developments are often low greenery, with established trees often removed to make way for development.
In analysis of data from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, the best child wellbeing outcomes were observed in areas with 21–40% greenspace coverage (Feng & Astell-Burt, 2017b). |
| Local government; urban planners; developers; and play, nature, or community organisations | In disadvantaged areas, increase tree canopy cover, expand greenspace amenities, and develop under-utilised land into quality greenspace.
In urban fringe areas, preserve established trees, and set aside land for greenspace early in planning processes. This ensures children and families have access to quality greenspace when they move into new developments.
Where greenspace availability is low, consider initiatives such as:
|
1.2 Adopt minimum greenspace standards
| Who can make a difference? | Example actions | Why it matters |
| Policymakers, local councils and developers | Set a minimum greenspace standard. Williams et al. (2025) suggest the ‘3–30–300 rule’ could form the basis of a standard in Australia. This rule states that ‘all people should be able to see 3 established trees from their home or workplace, have at least 30% tree canopy in their residential neighbourhood, and live within 300 [metres] of high-quality green space’ (Williams et al., 2025, p.111). | See ‘Why it matters’ in solution 1.1.
Additionally, when quality greenspace is concentrated in wealthy neighbourhoods, many children and families miss out on the benefits of greenspace, and there is a risk that it is seen as a commodity or luxury. The implementation of minimum standards can help reduce these risks by:
|
1.3 Make school grounds accessible to the community 24/7
| Who can make a difference? | Example actions | Why it matters |
| Policymakers | Remove policy-level barriers to after-hours access.
Incentivise and partner with schools to keep their grounds open 24/7.
Develop programs that support schools to keep their grounds open after hours. For example, NSW Department of Education School Infrastructure runs Share our space, a program aimed at increasing community access to schools’ outdoor spaces during school holidays and after hours (n.d.). |
‘Unlocking’ school grounds can make large greenspaces accessible to the community. In areas with less greenspace, this can represent a significant in-crease in the greenspace avail-able for play. |
| Schools and education providers | Advocate for 24/7 access to school grounds and initiatives that support this.
Where possible, be proactive in providing 24/7 access to children and families. |
1.4 Make education and health care settings greener
| Who can make a difference? | Example actions | Why it matters |
| Policymakers | Encourage school greening – for example, via incentives, or access to experts or resources.
Ensure that minimum standards for early childhood centres, kindergartens, and schools require enough outdoor space to allow for diversity of natural elements. |
Greening schools, kindergartens and early education settings ensures that young and school-aged children are spending time in greenspace most days of the week.
For children spending time in hospitals and other health care set-tings, greener surrounds can lead to more expo-sure to greenspace.
Making schools and adjacent streets greener may support children’s cognitive development (Dadvand et al., 2015). This has the potential to improve outcomes across the lifespan (Dadvand et al., 2015).
Greener school grounds tend to promote physical activity and social-emotional health, suggesting schools offer an opportunity to address child health inequities (Bikomeye et al., 2021). |
| Architects and designers | Plan for green schools, kindergartens, early childhood centres, and hospitals from the outset. Engage children, families, teachers, health care staff, practitioners, and the community in the design process to ensure spaces meet child, family, and community needs (see the ‘Partnering with children, families, and communities’ box for more). | |
| Schools, kindergartens, early childhood centres, and health care settings | Advocate for ample greenery in the design or redevelopment of schools, kindergartens, early childhood centres, and health care settings and surrounding areas.
Consider initiatives like greening ‘busy bees’, greening small areas as classroom projects, or partnerships with local nurseries.
Collaborate with architects and designers to increase children’s participation in the design of outdoor school spaces. For example, where could participating in the design process integrate with curriculum goals? How could you use your skills to facilitate child participation? |
2. Encourage children and families to spend time in greenspace
While living in green neighbourhoods is important, it’s only part of the picture. To experience the full benefits of greenspaces, children and families need to spend time in them – playing, picnicking, walking, biking, relaxing, and more. Yet for many Australian children and families, time in greenspace is not part of the rhythm of daily life. This means initiatives that make it easy, safe, and enjoyable to spend time in greenspace have an important role to play in promoting positive child mental health and wellbeing.
2.1 Make greenspaces inclusive, enjoyable and engaging for people of all ages
| Who can make a difference? | Example actions | Why it matters |
| Policymakers | Invest in and encourage the development of greenspace that meets the needs of people of all ages, abilities, and cultural backgrounds, including children, young people, parents, and grandparents.
Encourage and incentivise partnership with children, families, and communities on government-funded greenspace or public open space projects. |
‘Spaces that are free at the point of access and provide a mix of uses, natural elements and activities away from traffic allow children, families and the community to be more active and spend more time together. Supporting play alongside the needs of elderly people will result in tangible health and wellbeing benefits for the whole community.’ (Wright et al., 2017, p. 24) |
| Local councils, planners, designers, schools, and sports clubs | Consider how inclusive your local greenspaces are. Assess and design local greenspace with people of all ages, abilities, and cultural backgrounds in mind. For more, see Everyone can play: A guideline to create inclusive playspaces by the NSW Department of Planning and Environment (2023b).
Partner with children, young people, parents, and grandparents to develop greenspaces that welcome, engage, challenge, and delight.
Alongside parks and playgrounds, consider developing other types of greenspaces, such as community gardens, urban orchards, greenways, or public art or poetry ‘trails’. |
2.2 Make greenspaces come alive with things to do, see, and explore
| Who can make a difference? | Example actions | Why it matters |
| Policymakers | Invest in and encourage initiatives that make it enjoyable and engaging for children and families to spend time in greenspace. For example, nature play organisations or programs, sports clubs, or outdoor community events. | A project, game, or event can unlock the door to children and families spending more time in greenspace. |
| Local councils, schools, sports clubs, and botanic gardens | Run community events in greenspaces. For example, outdoor cinemas, concerts, gardening or beekeeping courses, or light shows.
Develop resources like maps of locally available family-friendly greenspace, or food and foraging maps. For example, the Low cost food and transport maps from WellSouth Primary Health Network in New Zealand (2017).
Run initiatives that encourage children and families to explore new areas or outdoor activities, like local scavenger hunts or loan libraries for outdoor equipment.
Develop or encourage the uptake of resources that add a layer of interest or purpose to outdoor walks or play. |
2.3 Make it easy and safe for children and families to get to greenspace
| Who can make a difference? | Example actions | Why it matters |
| Policymakers | Require and/or incentivise developers to set aside ample land for walkways and cycleways to greenspaces.
Fund initiatives that improve walkways, cycleways, and public transport connected to greenspace.
Assess the impact of policies related to traffic, public transport, walking, and cycling infrastructure with child mental health in mind. For example, consider how changes in funding to public transport impact the ability of children and families to access greenspace. |
Well-connected and safe networks of paths, lights, crossings, and public transport make it easier and safer for children and families to get to greenspaces. |
| Local government | Prioritise development and improvement of walking and cycling networks linked to greenspaces.
Consider traffic reduction and calming strategies along walkways and cycleways, as well as near greenspaces.
Provide ample parking at greenspaces.
Ensure greenspaces are accessible to children and families with disabilities.
Ensure locally provided public transport routes stop within easy walking distance from greenspace – and that public transport is family- and disability-friendly.
Develop maps or other resources that list local greenspaces and their amenities.
Consider proximity to greenspace for services frequented by families. For example, libraries, maternal child health centres, medical services, and shopping centres.
Develop or encourage the uptake of resources that add a layer of interest or purpose to outdoor walks or play. |
2.4 Make it easier for children and families to find time to spend in greenspace
| Who can make a difference? | Example actions | Why it matters |
| Policymakers | Assess impacts of economic, education, social, and transport policies on the time children and families have available to spend in greenspace. For example, policies that impact the time parents spend working or commuting can influence how much time parents have available to accompany their children to greenspaces.
Consider where there are opportunities to address barriers to children spending time in greenspace via policy initiatives. |
Parents’ long working hours, tiredness, or focus on immediate financial needs have the potential to limit outdoor play (Gemmell, et al., 2022). In a 2011 survey, around one in four Australian parents reported they didn’t have time to play with their children outdoors (Planet Ark, 2011). |
| Local government | Think about how you could make it easier for children and families to spend time in greenspace. Consider initiatives that address barriers like parents’ concerns about safety, or the limited time available to families. For example:
|
2.5 Build time in greenspace into children’s daily activities and routines
| Who can make a difference? | Example actions | Why it matters |
| Policymakers | Consider where there are opportunities to address barriers to children spending time in greenspace via policy initiatives. For example, how could education, transport, or health policies support children to spend time in greenspace.
Invest in programs that integrate time in nature with curriculum goals or service delivery. For example, kitchen garden programs, farm-based learning, outdoor education programs, or school camps.
Remove barriers to, and incentivise, government-funded services offered in greenspaces (e.g. playgroups, and family, disability, mental health, allied health, and child development services). |
Building time in greenspace into activities that children and families are already doing can make it easier for busy families to spend time outside.
Making greenspace part of daily activities can also benefit practitioners or teachers who, as a result, spend more time outdoors. |
| Schools and early childhood centres | Implement initiatives that make it easier and safer for children to walk or cycle to school. For example, position car drop-off points at least 100m away from school, organise a walking school bus, or run road safety programs.
Maximise time in greenspaces for children of all ages. For example:
|
School-based initiatives can increase the amount of time most children spend in greenspace.
Nature can have a restorative effect on attention and cognitive function (e.g. Schutte et al., 2017). This means initiatives like ‘brain breaks’ may be more effective if taken outside. |
| Practitioners and service managers | Deliver services in greenspace where possible. For example, run:
Delivering services outdoors requires collaborative efforts to address barriers. If your service policies or procedures prevent outdoor delivery, consider a whole-of-organisation approach to addressing them. Where necessary, advocate for broader policies and regulations that accommodate safe outdoor service delivery.
If children and families leave your service with strategies or exercises to practice at home, consider how you could encourage children and families to practice them in greenspace. |
Along with increasing the amount of time children spend in greenspace, delivering services outdoors has the potential to build child and parent confidence in greenspace. It also allows practitioners to experience some of the benefits to adult health and wellbeing that come with spending time in natural spaces. |
2.6 Communicate the benefits of greenspace to children and families
| Who can make a difference? | Example actions | Why it matters |
| Policymakers | Invest in public health messaging for parents that:
|
When children and families know about the benefits of greenspace for mental health and wellbeing, it can encourage them to seek out and spend time in nature. |
| Local councils | Deliver initiatives that communicate the benefits of greenspace with children, parents, and grandparents. For example, run talks or programs at schools, parent evenings, or advertising at community recreation centres.
For a community engagement and public messaging toolkit, see Who’s with us? Bringing community along the green space journey by Greener Spaces Better Places (n.d.). |
|
| Schools | Consider how you can share the benefits of greenspace with children and families. For example, via classroom learning, school camp programs, parent evenings, or messaging in school newsletters.
Consider how and when greenspace could be brought into the conversation when it comes to supporting children facing mental health challenges, including behavioural or emotional difficulties (e.g. in staff meetings or conversations with parents). |
|
| Practitioners | Consider how you could encourage children and families to spend time outside. Would it help to share some of the benefits or address parents’ worries? How could you do this?
Explore strategies like ‘nature prescriptions’ to support your practice.
Review what you ask about when you’re building a picture of child and family health. How could you bring outdoor play and time in nature into the conversation?
Collate resources on local greenspace or outdoor play and have them on hand to share with families. |
What to keep in mind
Research consistently shows that greenspace has a positive effect on human health and wellbeing (Yang et al., 2021), but this doesn’t mean greenspace initiatives are without risks. Greenspace initiatives should be planned carefully, and in consultation with local communities, to maximise their positive impact. What is most important to consider will vary based on your role and local context.
The following table includes examples of factors that individuals and organisations may want to consider when planning greenspace initiatives.
| If you’re a … | Keep in mind that … | Which means it’s important to … |
| Policymaker or planner | There may be a link between urban greening and gentrification – and gentrification is often associated with displacement.
‘Green gentrification’ refers to the theory that ‘green’ initiatives (e.g. land clean-up, greenspace development) may contribute to growth in property prices, rent increases, and an influx of new residents (Campbell et al., 2024). The chief concern with this process is that gentrification may, over time, lead to displacement of the very people greening projects were meant to support (Wolch et al., 2014).
In an Australian policy context, it is important to note that most green gentrification research focuses on American cities.
The majority of research is based on case-studies, with further research needed to understand the mechanisms at play, and to establish if and when green gentrification results in displacement (Quinton et al., 2022). For example, it’s possible that the process operates in reverse. Analysis of 10 years of data on greenness, income, demographics, and housing values from across Melbourne found that gentrification led to urban greening – not the other way around (Sharifi et al., 2021).
In Green gentrification and environmental injustice, Campbell et al. (2024) conclude that while green policies and projects may influence broader systems, they are unlikely to act as a standalone cause of gentrification or displacement. They also conclude that fear of unintended consequences should not prevent green policy action and its near-certain benefits to human health. |
Design policy that can buffer against many of the forces that drive displacement (Campbell et al., 2024).
Strategies that may help counter some of the risks associated with gentrification include:
Focus not only on the creation of new greenspace but also on children and families’ use of existing spaces.
Initiatives focused on use and access may help reduce the risk of gentrification and may be particularly useful in areas where gentrification and displacement are likely. Collaboration with families, schools, and practitioners working with children and families can help drive initiatives that address key barriers. |
| Development can risk the destruction of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander lands and sacred sites.
The destruction of ancestral lands for industrialisation and urbanisation inflicts a deep sense of loss upon Indigenous communities. As sacred sites are bulldozed and ecosystems decimated, Indigenous peoples experience profound grief and anguish, feeling the echoes of destruction within their very beings. (Fredericks & Bywater, 2024)
Development – including development of greenspace – has the potential to damage or destroy Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander lands and sacred sites. |
Collaborate with and listen to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in the earliest stages of development projects – and beyond.
See Connecting with Country by the NSW Government’s Department of Planning and Environment (2023a) for guidance on responding to Country in the planning, design, and delivery of built environment projects. |
|
| Planner, landscape architect, or designer | Greenspace is linked to air quality.
While air quality is generally better around greenspace, pollen from some plants may increase the risk of allergies (Cariñanos & Casares-Porcel, 2011; Markevych et al., 2017). Overall, the evidence linking greenspace to allergies and asthma is inconclusive (WHO, 2016). |
Select appropriate plants to help counter the risk of allergies and asthma. |
| Interacting with natural spaces can pose health risks.
Ingestion of dog or cat faeces poses significant risks to children’s health (WHO, 2016). |
Ensure proper management and design of greenspace. This includes making sure that dogs have minimal contact with play areas and faeces are removed by owners (WHO, 2016). | |
| Some research suggests that larger greenspaces with limited surveillance may increase crime – or fear of crime (Kimpton et al., 2016; Lee & Maheswaran, 2011; WHO, 2016).
But findings are mixed. Weinstein et al (2015) found that even when demographics were accounted for, less crime was reported in areas with more greenspace – perhaps in part due to the positive impact of greenspace on community cohesion. |
Consider design elements that increase feelings of safety. For example, adequate lighting, a degree of visual openness, or CCTV. |
For more planning considerations, see Urban green spaces and health: A review of the evidence and Assessing the value of urban green and blue space for health and well-being, both by the WHO (2016; 2023).
The idea that greenspace supports positive mental health and wellbeing across the lifespan is, in some ways, nothing new. It is something we know intuitively – observed in our own lives, or in the lives of those around us. It is something Indigenous peoples world-over have known for millennia: that we are a part of nature, our wellbeing interwoven with, and nurtured by, the places we call home.
But the evidence presented here is a call to action.
If greenspace is a key building block for child mental health and wellbeing, we must act to ensure all Australian children can regularly spend time in greenspace. We must ensure children living in disadvantaged areas can access greenspace just as easily as their more-advantaged peers. We must do what we can to design policies, systems, and initiatives that encourage children and families to spend time in greenspace. And, if we are to ensure that children can experience the benefits of greenspace for generations to come, we must act now to preserve space for nature in our growing cities.
This will take collective action from policymakers, practitioners, leaders, designers, planners, decision-makers, and anyone working with (or for) children and families. Together, we can create a future where the benefits of greenspace are accessible to every child and family.
Which brings us to the question: What can you do to help make greenspace part of daily life for every Australian child?
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