Climate change-related worry in children and young people: What does the research evidence say?

Introduction

Children are increasingly aware of the effects of climate change on the environment. The concept of ‘eco-anxiety’ has been used, especially in the media, to describe the emotional and mental health effects that children and young people may experience because of this growing awareness.

Studies indicate that climate change-related worry is common in Australia, with estimates ranging between one third to 89% of pre-teens (10–13 years old) worrying about climate change or the environment (Harker-Schuch et al., 2021; Vassalo & Swami, 2019). Surveys of Australian adolescents (15–19 years old) have also found that mental health and the environment are among the top four most important issues identified by young people (Carlisle et al., 2018; Tiller et al., 2020).

Research also suggests that younger people are more likely to experience climate change-related distress compared to older populations (Ramadan et al., 2023). This may be because of the early age at which children are exposed to this information and may also be connected to young people’s lower levels of scepticism about climate change compared to older populations (Burke et al., 2018).

Some researchers have suggested that worry about climate change stems not just from its immediate effects but also relates to individuals’ concerns about their future (i.e. the existential nature of the problem), which may be of particular concern for young people (Treble et al., 2023).

Adults can be dismissive towards young peoples’ concerns about climate change and young people may not discuss everything they know about climate change with the adults in their lives (Brophy et al., 2023).

For these reasons, it is important to consider climate change-related worry when working with children and young people.

This short article draws on reviews of academic literature to describe the evidence on climate change awareness and worry and how it is experienced by children and young people. This is an emerging area of research, so evidence-based strategies or advice on how best to support children experiencing climate-related worry are limited.

How is climate change-related worry described in research?

The academic literature contains a range of terms to describe children’s emotional reaction to, and/or awareness of, climate change. Terms used include ‘eco-anxiety’, ‘climate-anxiety’ and ‘solastalgia’¹ (Léger-Goodes et al., 2023; Martin et al., 2023; Ramadan et al., 2023).

Most studies on this topic include a component of ‘worry’, ‘concern’ or ‘anxiety’ in the way they describe the issue, but they can also refer to slightly different areas of concern. For example, the term ‘eco-anxiety’ generally refers to emotional responses arising from awareness about climate change rather than distress from experiencing the direct effects of climate change, such as drought or floods (Brophy et al., 2023; Martin et al., 2023; Martin et al., 2022).

There is also variability in how climate change-related worry is defined, measured or investigated. This makes it difficult to compare results from different studies and draw conclusions (Martin et al., 2023).

Researchers describe climate change as a stressor² for young people, even when the impacts of climate change are not directly experienced by them (Burke et al., 2018). Recognising climate change as a stressor and understanding the ways young people can cope with these concerns may be important for engagement and wellbeing when working with young people (Ojala, 2012a).

Research suggests it is important that climate change-related worry is not automatically considered a problem. Children’s growing awareness of climate change can have both positive and negative effects on their wellbeing, pro-environmental behaviour (i.e. the actions taken to protect or preserve the environment) and life satisfaction (Martin et al., 2023; Ramadan et al., 2023). It is also important to note that terms such as ‘eco-anxiety’ can emphasise the individual experience, rather than recognising this anxiety as a reasonable reaction that many young people have in response to the global threat of climate change (Brophy et al., 2023).

How is climate change-related worry experienced by children and young people?

Climate-related worries that young people may experience include:

• worries about the threat to the planet including pollution and loss of biodiversity
• concern for their own future and existential crisis (i.e. questioning their own purpose and meaning in life; Australian Psychological Association [APA], n.d.-b)
• concerns about people in other countries where climate change may have a greater impact than in their own country (Léger-Goodes et al., 2023; Martin et al., 2022).

Feelings that are commonly experienced by children when discussing environmental problems include worry, concern, fear, sadness and anger (Burke et al., 2018; Ramadan et al., 2023). Pessimism and hopelessness have also been described as common for young people experiencing climate change-related worry (Brophy et al., 2023). This may be especially common for younger children, who have less agency for action against climate change (e.g. through activism) and can thus feel powerless (Brophy et al., 2023). Adults dismissing young people’s concerns can also add to feelings of helplessness and disempowerment (Burke et al., 2018; Ramadan et al., 2023).

However, research suggests that not all negative emotions (e.g. worry) about climate change have negative outcomes. The outcomes of emotional responses depend on the young person’s style of coping (Martin et al., 2022). Reviews have highlighted a group of studies, undertaken with Swedish schoolchildren and young adults (11–25 years old), that looked at coping strategies that can influence how climate change-related worry is experienced (Ojala, 2012a, 2012b, 2013). The three key coping strategies included:

• Problem-focused coping: trying to do something about climate change by searching for information about how they can address the problem. This coping strategy was linked to higher levels of negative affect³, including anxious and depressive feelings, but also pro-environmental behaviour⁴.
• Emotion-focused coping: finding ways to minimise the negative emotions that arise in response to a problem or de-emphasise the problem. This can be through denial, distancing oneself from the problem, distraction and avoidance. This was found to be the most common coping strategy in children and adolescents and was associated with scoring lower on environmental values and lower levels of pro-environmental behaviour.
• Meaning-focused coping: finding positive aspects of a difficult situation and a sense of hope for the future while acknowledging the problem of climate change. Meaning-focused coping was found to be associated with positive affect³, life satisfaction and pro-environmental behaviour. Other studies have also found that pro-environmental behaviour and developing a positive image of the future is associated with better wellbeing and sense of meaning in life (Burke et al., 2018; Strazdins & Skeat, 2011; van Nieuwenhuizen et al., 2021; Venhoeven et al., 2013).

Different groups of young people may have different experiences of climate change-related worry. One review emphasised that awareness or distress related to climate change among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people and Canadian Indigenous youth is notable. This is due to their close connection to land and its role in their social and emotional wellbeing (Brown et al., 2024). There is also research to suggest that girls have more climate concerns than boys, but that they also experience higher levels of hope or optimism (Léger-Goodes et al., 2023; Martin et al., 2023).

What mental health outcomes are related to climate change-related worry?

Research about mental health outcomes relating to climate change awareness or worry in children and young people is still emerging.

Currently, there is limited research to suggest that climate change-related awareness or worry necessarily leads to greater mental health challenges, such as depression or anxiety, in young people. This is because most studies have collected data at a single point in time, and it is therefore difficult to assess whether climate change-related worry causes negative mental health effects or if it is a result of pre-existing mental health challenges or predispositions (Treble et al., 2023).

Some researchers have suggested that young people may experience negative emotions as a response to their awareness of climate change without necessarily experiencing significant distress or negative mental health effects (Léger-Goodes et al., 2023). However, as there is limited research on this topic, the relationship between climate change-related worry and mental health outcomes is not yet clear.

There is some evidence that links prolonged worry or stress about climate change with negative mental health outcomes (Martin et al., 2023; Ramadan et al., 2023; Sciberras & Fernando, 2022). One study using longitudinal data of Australian children found that adolescents with high persistent worry about climate change (where high levels of worry are found at multiple time points between ages 10–19) also had greater depression symptoms at 18–19 years of age when compared to adolescents with moderate levels of worry about climate change (Sciberras & Fernando, 2022).

Although not specific to prolonged stress about climate change, existing research suggests that, in the absence of protective factors, prolonged stress is associated with a risk of mental health challenges, such as depression, anxiety or substance use (McEwen, 2017; Ramadan et al., 2023).

Implications and conclusion

There is limited evidence about effective ways for practitioners to support children and young people experiencing climate change-related worry. However, the evidence about how climate change-related worry is experienced by children and young people may have implications for practitioners working in this area. For example, practitioners can demonstrate that they take the young person’s concerns seriously by:

• asking them about climate change-related worry, but not necessarily labelling this worry as a mental health concern
• validating their emotions by acknowledging the issue of climate change
• not downplaying their concerns about climate change.

Practitioners may be able to support children and young people to cope with their worry through the following actions (Brophy et al., 2023; Burke et al., 2018; Ojala, 2013; van Nieuwenhuizen et al., 2021):

• encouraging optimism and hope and supporting a positive image of the future, while also acknowledging the complexity of climate change
• encouraging them to join like-minded young people interested in the issue. (This may be particularly relevant for older children/adolescents who can be encouraged to take action on climate issues as a strategy to support their wellbeing.)

Practitioners should also be aware that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people may need culturally responsive support in the context of climate change-related worry due to their unique connections to Land and Country.

How this resource was developed

The evidence drawn on for this article is from reviews of the literature on the topic, including systematic and scoping reviews, with a specific focus on Australian primary research or studies based on specific populations (e.g. First Nations youth). The evidence drawn on for this short article has been screened to ensure children under 12 years of age are represented, although due to the small evidence base, most literature also includes adolescents and young people (up to 25 years of age).

Acknowledgements

Anagha Joshi (author), Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS), would like to acknowledge Joanna Schwarzman (AIFS) and Stewart Muir (AIFS) who supported in reviews of drafts and structuring of the short article.

References

Albrecht, G., Sartore, G.-M., Connor, L., Higginbotham, N., Freeman, S., Kelly, B., Stain, H., Tonna, A., & Pollard, G. (2007). Solastalgia: The distress caused by environmental change. Australasian Psychiatry, 15(1_suppl), S95–S98. DOI: 10.1080/10398560701701288.

American Psychological Association (n.d.-a). Affect. In APA dictionary of psychology. Retrieved 7 August 2024.

American Psychological Association (n.d.-b). Existential crisis. In APA dictionary of psychology. Retrieved 7 August 2024.

American Psychological Association (n.d.-c). Negative affect. In APA dictionary of psychology. Retrieved 7 August 2024.

American Psychological Association (n.d.-d). Positive affect. In APA dictionary of psychology. Retrieved 7 August 2024.

Brophy, H., Olson, J., & Paul, P. (2023). Eco‐anxiety in youth: An integrative literature review. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 32(3), 633–661. DOI: 10.1111/inm.13099.

Brown, M., Mirza, S., Lu, J., & Stewart, S. L. (2024). Walking forward together—the next step: Indigenous youth mental health and the climate crisis. Psych, 6(1), 210–220. DOI: 10.3390/psych6010013.

Burke, S. E., Sanson, A. V., & Van Hoorn, J. (2018). The psychological effects of climate change on children. Current Psychiatry Reports, 20, 1–8. DOI: 10.1007/s11920-018-0896-9.

Carlisle, E., Fildes, J., Hall, S., Hicking, V., Perrens, B., & Plummer, J. (2018). Youth survey report 2018. Mission Australia.

Gamble, J., Balbus, J., Berger, M., Bouye, K., Campbell, V., Chief, K., Conlon, K., Crimmins, A., Flanagan, B., & Gonzalez-Maddux, C. (2016). Populations of concern. In A. Crimmins, J. Balbus, J. L. Gamble, C. B. Beard, J. E. Bell, D. Dodgen, R. J. Eisen, N. Fann, M. D. Hawkins, S. C. Herring, L. Jantarasami, D. M. Mills, S. Saha, M. C. Sarofim, J. Trtanj, & L. Ziska (Eds.), The impacts of climate change on human health in the United States: A scientific assessment. U.S. Global Research Program.

Harker-Schuch, I., Lade, S., Mills, F., & Colvin, R. (2021). Opinions of 12 to 13-year-olds in Austria and Australia on the concern, cause and imminence of climate change. Ambio, 50, 644–660. DOI: 10.1007/s13280-020-01356-2.

Léger-Goodes, T., Malboeuf-Hurtubise, C., Hurtubise, K., Simons, K., Boucher, A., Paradis, P.-O., Herba, C. M., Camden, C., & Généreux, M. (2023). How children make sense of climate change: A descriptive qualitative study of eco-anxiety in parent-child dyads. PLoS ONE, 17(4), 1-25. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0284774.

Martin, G., Cosma, A., Roswell, T., Anderson, M., Treble, M., Leslie, K., Card, K. G., Closson, K., Kennedy, A., & Gislason, M. (2023). Measuring negative emotional responses to climate change among young people in survey research: A systematic review. Social Science & Medicine, 329, 116008. DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116008.

Martin, G., Reilly, K., Everitt, H., & Gilliland, J. A. (2022). Review: The impact of climate change awareness on children’s mental well‐being and negative emotions – a scoping review. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 27(1), 59–72. DOI: 10.1111/camh.12525.

McEwen, B. S. (2017). Neurobiological and systemic effects of chronic stress. Chronic Stress, 1. DOI: 10.1177/2470547017692328.

Ojala, M. (2012a). How do children cope with global climate change? Coping strategies, engagement, and well-being. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 32(3), 225–233. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2012.02.004.

Ojala, M. (2012b). Regulating worry, promoting hope: How do children, adolescents, and young adults cope with climate change? International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 7(4), 537–561.

Ojala, M. (2013). Coping with climate change among adolescents: Implications for subjective well-being and environmental engagement. Sustainability, 5(5), 2191–2209. DOI: 10.3390/su5052191.

Ramadan, R., Randell, A., Lavoie, S., Gao, C. X., Manrique, P. C., Anderson, R., McDowell, C., & Zbukvic, I. (2023). Empirical evidence for climate concerns, negative emotions and climate‐related mental ill‐health in young people: A scoping review. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 17(6), 537–563. DOI: 10.1111/eip.13374.

Sciberras, E., & Fernando, J. W. (2022). Climate change‐related worry among Australian adolescents: An eight‐year longitudinal study. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 27(1), 22-29. DOI: 10.1111/camh.12521.

Strazdins, L., & Skeat, H. (2011). Weathering the future: Climate change, children and young people, and decision making. Australian Research Alliance for Children and Youth.

Tiller, E., Fildes, J., Hall, S., Hicking, V., Greenland, N., Liyanarachchi, D., & Di Nicola, K. (2020). Youth survey report 2020. Mission Australia.

Treble, M., Cosma, A., & Martin, G. (2023). Child and adolescent psychological reactions to climate change: A narrative review through an existential lens. Current Psychiatry Reports, 25(8), 357–363. DOI: 10.1007/s11920-023-01430-y.

van Nieuwenhuizen, A., Hudson, K., Chen, X., & Hwong, A. R. (2021). The effects of climate change on child and adolescent mental health: Clinical considerations. Current Psychiatry Reports, 23(12), 88. DOI: 10.1007/s11920-021-01296-y.

Vassalo, S., & Swami, N. (2019). Tweens and teens: What do they worry about? Growing up in Australia: The longitudinal study of Australian children (LSAC): Annual statistical report 2018, 9. Australian Institute of Family Studies, Australian Government.

Venhoeven, L. A., Bolderdijk, J. W., & Steg, L. (2013). Explaining the paradox: How pro-environmental behaviour can both thwart and foster well-being. Sustainability, 5(4), 1372–1386. DOI: 10.3390/su5041372.