Practices for supporting infant and child mental health after disasters

What is this resource about?

This practice paper provides comprehensive guidance for supporting the mental health and development of infants and children following disasters. It outlines essential strategies for practitioners to address the immediate and long-term impacts of such events, focusing on fostering resilience and mental health recovery. The paper emphasises the importance of a multifaceted approach, including enhancing child–adult relationships, promoting effective communication and meaning-making, encouraging play and creative expression, and maintaining routines and predictability. It also highlights the need for continuous support that adapts to children’s evolving needs and stresses the importance of engaging children as active participants in their recovery.

By integrating evidence-informed practices with trauma-informed principles, this resource equips practitioners with practical strategies and insights to build confidence in assisting children, parents, and other important adults in children’s lives in navigating the aftermath of disasters, ultimately promoting their resilience and recovery.

Who is this resource for?

This practice paper is for anyone who is currently supporting, or could support, infants, children, parents and/or families before, during or after a disaster. This includes practitioners and workers, leaders and volunteers in:

• health services
• social and community services
• education
• first response and emergency services
• government (policy-making and agencies)
• non-government organisations
• community-led initiatives.

For ease of reading, we will refer to individuals in all these roles as ‘workers’ and ‘practitioners’.

Definitions

The terms ‘children’, ‘parents’ and ‘practitioners’ are used throughout this resource and we define them in the following ways:

Children: includes newborn infants, babies and children up to 12 years old.

Parents: the biological, adoptive, foster and kinship carers of a child, as well as individuals who have chosen to take up primary or shared responsibility in raising that child.

Practitioners: all individuals with a role that involves or might involve supporting infants, children, adults who may be parents, families and/or communities in the context of a disaster of any kind.

Key messages

• Offering support that is both timely and tailored to children’s developmental stages helps mitigate the immediate and long-term effects of disasters on their mental health and development.
• Addressing the diverse needs of children after disasters requires a broad set of mental health services, ranging from universal support to specialised interventions, ensuring that each child receives the appropriate level of care.
• Identifying children’s mental health needs early, and providing ongoing, adaptable support, are vital for preventing long-term issues and promoting effective recovery.
• Engaging with children as active participants and knowledgeable contributors after a disaster serves to empower them, make them feel valued and enhance their sense of agency.
• The five key elements for supporting infant and child mental health after disasters – safety, connection, calm, self-efficacy and community efficacy, and hope – can be used to guide psychosocial support with children and families during recovery.
• Effective support for infants and children after a disaster involves a multifaceted approach that addresses their developmental needs and the impact of trauma, emphasising the use of a range of key strategies in areas such as child–adult relationships, regulation and play.
• Strategies should be adaptable to the individual child, family and evolving disaster contexts.
• Maintaining your own wellbeing is important for effectively supporting others; regularly assess the impact of your work, seek support from your network, and employ strategies to manage stress and sustain resilience.

Disasters pose significant risks to the mental health and development of children, often resulting in profound and lasting impacts (Whaley et al., 2020). Such events can disrupt children’s sense of security, affect their development and challenge their emotional wellbeing. Disasters have the potential to cause traumatic reactions in both children and the adults they rely upon to keep them safe. Addressing these issues requires targeted strategies and a deep understanding of the unique needs of children across different age groups.

This practice paper offers comprehensive practitioner guidance on supporting the mental health and wellbeing of infants and children following disasters. It also includes strategies that can be used to guide parents and other important adults who are part of a child’s ecology. To support the children and families you work with, it is important you understand the nature and consequences of disasters but also the needs and strengths of children at various developmental stages.

Some practitioners may lack confidence in their ability to support infants and children after disasters if they do not feel they possess the experience or skills to address the needs of children and their families in the aftermath of such events. This paper is designed to build on your existing knowledge and skills, providing practical strategies and insights to support your confidence and competence in this critical area.

As disasters become more frequent and intense, and impact a greater number of communities across Australia, it is important to learn strategies that can mitigate the potential immediate and long-term harms to infants and children. This paper introduces practical strategies, illustrated through practice scenarios, to support children in building resilience and recovering from potentially traumatic events. These strategies include:

• supporting strong child–adult relationships
• promoting effective communication and meaning-making
• encouraging play and creative expression
• creating routine and predictability.

Strategies for accessing support, including family, friends and community resources, are highlighted as another essential component of the recovery process.

Engaging children as active participants in their recovery is crucial. It is important to involve them in decision-making processes and recognise their strengths and contributions, which in turn enhances their sense of agency and self-efficacy. By empowering children in this way, you not only support their immediate recovery but also help build their resilience and confidence for future challenges.

This paper is one of three in the practice guidance series that focus on supporting children and families after disasters. The practice strategies described in each are complementary, offering a comprehensive resource for practitioners that can be effectively used together to provide holistic support for children after disasters.

Accompanying papers include:

• Supporting the mental health of infants, children and families after disasters
  This paper will equip you with foundational knowledge and approaches to support infants, children and their families during the recovery phase of a disaster.
• Working with parents to support children after disasters
  This paper identifies strategies for engaging with parents to enhance the wellbeing, resilience and recovery of infants and children who experience disasters. It presents a holistic approach that recognises and tailors support to each family’s unique needs.

By integrating these practices and understandings, you can enhance your preparedness to assist infants and children, either directly or indirectly, in navigating the aftermath of disasters, supporting their mental health and developmental needs while promoting their resilience and recovery.

When a child has experienced a disaster, providing timely support that is matched to their developmental needs can reduce the potential for adverse outcomes for their development, mental health and wellbeing (Kenardy et al., 2011; Le Brocque et al., 2017).

Evidence has long supported using a range of mental health interventions to respond to individual needs. A core set of mental health services is needed to decrease the incidence, duration and severity of mental health conditions (Mrazek & Haggerty, 1994). This includes integrating a variety of approaches across:

• mental health promotion
• prevention and early intervention
• treatment
• continuing care.

Taking an integrated approach to infant and child mental health and wellbeing in the context of disasters involves providing a comprehensive range of coordinated support that addresses the full spectrum of infant, child and family needs. While all children will benefit from universal support, some will need more targeted or intensive specialised services.

Universal approaches are those that aim to support all (or most) children exposed to a potentially traumatic event. Universal approaches focus on providing information and general support for children and their parents, while facilitating processes for screening and identifying those who may need a higher level of intervention. Addressing broader social and environmental factors enhances the effectiveness of universal approaches by contributing to a stable and supportive context for children’s recovery.

Selective or targeted interventions are for children who show signs of acute distress or whose emotional wellbeing is not restoring as expected following the event. These interventions usually aim to reduce specific concerning symptoms, support the infant, child and family, and monitor distress over time (e.g. through rescreening).

Indicated or treatment interventions are designed for the minority of children who are experiencing clinically significant, persistent and/or escalating levels of distress. A range of pre-existing risk factors, including past traumatic experiences, contribute to the risk that a child may develop post-traumatic stress symptoms or diagnosable mental health conditions (such as anxiety and depression) following a disaster. Indicated interventions build on the other approaches and interventions, adding specific evidence-based strategies for the treatment of trauma and/or diagnosable mental health conditions.

An effective approach to supporting child mental health after disasters encompasses direct mental health interventions plus practical support for the child and their ecology. This includes the provision of resources, safe and nurturing environments, and services that address social and emotional wellbeing. The broader developmental needs of the child and their surrounding context should also be considered.

Ideally, interventions will be provided using a trauma-informed approach which means:

• being aware of children’s and parents’ subjective experiences of the potentially traumatic event
• being sensitive to how children’s cognitions, emotions, physical state and behaviours may be affected by their experiences
• reducing the risk of secondary potentially traumatic events
• as much as possible, reducing reminders of the initial event and potential triggers for acute stress reactions
• assessing and addressing risk factors including pre-existing stressors, family issues and current living situation
• providing guidance and emotional support to promote positive recovery for children and family systems (De Young et al., in press; Kramer & Landolt, 2011).

Approaches or interventions can involve directly engaging with infants and children. However, they should also involve the important adults in their ecology: parents, extended family and kin, and their networks of support such as educators or community leaders. They may also occur in different contexts, such as a child’s home, early learning service or school, a community-based setting, or health service such as a mental health clinic. An example of a service that has provided support to children, parents, school communities and health professionals after bushfires and floods is Royal Far West’s Community Recovery Services. You can learn more about the impact of these events and the supports provided across different levels of the system of care in the following video (10 minutes, 4 seconds) and on the Royal Far West Community Recovery Services web page.

Stepped-care models

Stepped-care models offer a structured, tiered approach to mental health support, organising interventions from universal to specialised levels. Stepped-care models, used in paediatric healthcare and disaster response (Kazak, 2006; La Greca et al., 1996; Marsac et al., 2014; McDermott & Cobham, 2014; Price et al., 2015; Vernberg et al., 1996) have been adapted to deliver coordinated and responsive mental health support with disaster-affected children and families in Australia. These models ensure that support is appropriately matched to the needs of children and families:

• Universal level: This base level includes broad support accessible to all children provided by community resources like schools and public health initiatives.
• Targeted level: The middle tier addresses those needing additional support beyond universal services. This may include interventions delivered by school counsellors or community health workers.
• Specialised level: At the top level, specialised interventions are provided by mental health professionals and focus on intensive, evidence-based treatments for severe or persistent issues.

Clinicians and researchers developed and delivered a stepped–care model of post-disaster child and adolescent mental health service provision in response to the 2010–2011 flooding and cyclone disasters (McDermott & Cobham, 2014). Since then, it has been adapted and implemented in various other disaster-affected regions (McDermott, 2014). This model was designed to offer a practical solution to the challenges faced by the mental health system in delivering responsive support based on needs (McDermott & Cobham, 2014). It recognises that many children may develop mental health issues requiring intervention following a disaster, but that existing services often operate at full capacity and are primarily geared toward children who are experiencing severe mental health difficulties. You can read more about this stepped-care model in the article, Disasters, children and families: have we arrived at a comprehensive model of emotional health care?

The Birdie’s Tree initiative from the Queensland Centre for Perinatal Infant Mental Health (QCPIMH) presents a stepped-care model describing the universal level as ‘prevention’, the middle level as ‘early intervention’ and the specialised services (top level) as ‘treatment’. This model offers a prevention and early intervention approach that aims to ensure all infants and young children affected by disasters receive the appropriate level of care, while maintaining focus on those experiencing more complex needs.

Read an accessible description of the following Birdie’s Tree stepped-care model image

The structured approach of a stepped-care model considers infants and children’s differing experiences of and responses to disaster. In doing so it aims to ensure that post-disaster support is appropriately matched to the needs of each child and family to provide the right level of intervention at the right time.

In the following video (4 minutes, 45 seconds) three service leaders discuss the importance of having a range of approaches and models of care in order to tailor responses to the individual needs infants, children and their families. It includes a comprehensive overview of the Birdie’s Tree stepped-care model and resources, and Royal Far West’s bushfire recovery program.

Infants and children who experience a disaster require ongoing support that responds to their evolving needs in both the short term and long term. Recovery from a disaster is a gradual process, and it is essential to extend support beyond the immediate aftermath. Providing responsive care that adapts to children’s changing needs over weeks, months, and even years is crucial for their continued wellbeing.

Short-term support

In the immediate aftermath of a disaster, the primary focus is on ensuring children’s safety and security. This involves creating a stable and consistent environment as much as possible, addressing basic needs such as shelter, food and medical care. During the days and weeks after a disaster, it is important to provide practical support for families to help meet their basic needs but also to allow parents to focus on their relationship with children. By supporting children’s sense of safety this foundational step helps reduce their initial risk of trauma and anxiety.

Universal interventions should aim to provide accurate and helpful information about safety, what to expect after a disaster, psychoeducation and coping strategies (Vernberg, 2002; Vernberg et al., 2016). Early interventions to support psychological safety, like psychological first aid (PFA), are useful during this period. PFA involves offering emotional support, listening to children’s and parents’ concerns, and helping them understand that their reactions are common and expected in response to a stressful situation. You can learn more about PFA principles and training in the following resources.

In the aftermath of a potentially traumatic event such as a disaster, the aims of universal preventive early interventions are to:

• reduce the likelihood of the initial event being perceived as traumatic
• prevent exposure to secondary potentially traumatic experiences
• accelerate recovery from acute post-traumatic stress symptoms
• prevent escalation of post-traumatic stress symptoms and the development of persistent post-traumatic stress disorder or other negative psychosocial outcomes such as anxiety, depression and regressive developmental changes (De Young et al., in press).

Supporting parents to support children after disasters

A nurturing, responsive relationship with a primary caregiver is the most important protective factor for infants and young children exposed to stressful events. Therefore, regardless of the level of intervention required – whether universal, targeted or indicated – supporting parents to care for and connect with their children must be a priority. Recognising that parents themselves may be processing the traumatic event and focused on the practical tasks of recovery, it is crucial to offer information that is clear, concise and easily digestible. Building parents’ capacity by providing them with brief, practical guidance on identifying and responding to common stress reactions in children and effective self-coping strategies can support their ability to help their children and seek further assistance if necessary. More detailed guidance on supporting parents and families is available in the practice paper Working with parents to support children after disasters.

In the weeks and months following the disaster, helping children and families find stability becomes vital. While efforts to address basic needs through practical support should continue, an increased focus on responding to emotional and psychological needs is important. The strategies described in the second half of this paper in the Practice guidance on strategies for support section provide advice on ways to support children.

Monitoring for signs of ongoing distress or emerging mental health issues in the infants and children you support is essential. In educational settings, consistent observation can be crucial in identifying changes in a child’s emotional and behavioural responses. These settings provide valuable continuity of care and can help connect families with support services. Mental health practitioners may use screening tools to support the identification of children showing signs of needing more support.

For children exhibiting persistent or severe symptoms of trauma or other mental health difficulties, more intensive, evidence-based interventions may be required. It is important for practitioners to be equipped to provide or refer to specialised services that provide interventions such as trauma-focused cognitive-behavioural therapy (TF-CBT) or other appropriate therapeutic modalities.

Long-term support

Over the longer term – in the months and even years following a disaster – ongoing monitoring and support are still necessary.

It is important to continue to check in with families and the other important adults in children’s lives over time to provide information, and offer continued support and intervention as needed. Long-term support should include helping children develop resilience and effective coping skills. This involves teaching problem-solving, emotional regulation and social skills, as well as fostering supportive relationships within the family and community.

Anticipating potential triggers of distress, such as anniversaries of the disaster, is important. Being prepared allows you to provide proactive support and intervention to help children and families navigate these challenging times.

Supporting educators to support children and families

In addition to ongoing support for children and families, it is crucial to continue supporting early learning services and schools in the months and years following a disaster. Learning communities can adopt a whole-community approach by providing staff training, supporting parental and student needs, and implementing emotional regulation and social skills interventions. Training educators to monitor support needs over time, having trained mental health professionals available for students and staff, and designing events or ceremonies for anniversaries can enhance ongoing support.

Manualised intervention programs may be used in learning communities to promote a disaster support focus, for example:

• school-based family counselling and teacher training (Le Brocque et al., 2017; Le Brocque & Trigell 2023)
• Stormbirds program by MacKillop Family Services (n.d.)
• Birdie’s Tree early learning program (Queensland Centre for Perinatal and Infant Mental Health, 2022).

Given the increasing frequency and intensity of disasters in Australia, supporting children and families in preparing for future events is crucial for harm minimisation. Depending on their readiness to revisit the topic, practitioners can help families and communities develop emergency plans and coping strategies, enhancing their sense of control and preparedness. You can learn more about disaster recovery in schools in these resources:

Preparedness in early learning services and schools can be embedded through disaster resilience education into the curriculum and activities. For instance, Strathewen Primary School partnered with their local fire service through Victoria’s Survive and Thrive Program and the Australian Red Cross Pillowcase Workshops, which were used to provide children with a sense of agency by involving them in preparing for and responding to disasters (Australian Red Cross, 2024).

Read more about practices for child-centred and family-focused disaster preparedness in the practice paper Disaster preparedness with a focus on infants, children and families.

The support approach for service provision needs to be tailored to the circumstances and changing needs of children, families and their communities affected by disaster over time. Australian practitioners and researchers have designed different types of services and programs to respond to the needs of infants, children, families and their communities in response to potentially traumatic events and, specifically, disasters.

Service leaders have also described using the five core elements of psychosocial support to inform the design and implementation of their services. You will read more about those core elements (developed by Hobfoll and colleagues in 2007) in the later section of this paper: ‘Five elements to guide support for infant and child mental health after disasters’. It describes a range of approaches and interventions that have been used or could be relevant in disaster contexts.

Looking after your own wellbeing

Offering psychosocial support to children and families after disasters can be consuming work. It is easy to neglect the strategies that protect your wellbeing and allow you to do your job well. And it can be easy to miss the signs that your wellbeing is at risk.

During and after a disaster, you may experience high levels of stress and uncertainty, which can affect your physical and mental health. You need to take steps to look after your wellbeing so you can effectively take care of others.

Looking after your wellbeing is more than using ‘self-care’ strategies; it means actively taking time to pay attention to the impacts of the work on your wellbeing, asking people in your support network to notice how it may be affecting you and identifying what action you may need to take. Managing risks to your wellbeing and boosting protective factors ensures you can effectively support others – not just immediately after a disaster but in the long term.

Read more about looking after your wellbeing in the practice paper Wellbeing for workers supporting children and families after a disaster.

Effective support for infants, children and families who have experienced a disaster needs to align with their specific needs. This means observing an infant’s or child’s behaviour, understanding what would be considered common for a child of their age, noticing what the child is communicating, and assessing their mental health needs. Seeing the ‘whole child’ can help you identify a child’s strengths and vulnerabilities, and when a child may require targeted or indicated interventions.

Engaging with and supporting children’s strengths while addressing their vulnerabilities is important. Recognising these may not be straightforward.

Informal monitoring (‘watchful waiting’) on the part of parents, educators and other supportive adults is important. Formal screening measures and structured processes for mental health assessments can also be used and are usually required for referral to clinical interventions (De Young et al., in press). When the adults in a child’s life communicate with one another about how a child is functioning in different care settings (e.g. at home vs at school or early learning services) it is easier to identify and respond to their needs.

Educators can find additional information on improving family partnerships and developing skills to discuss child mental health challenges with families in Emerging Minds’ Family partnerships for educators toolkit.

It is important to approach trauma responses in children with sensitivity and understanding. Equally it’s necessary to remember that these responses can be temporary adaptations to stressful circumstances rather than prematurely identifying them as signs of enduring mental health conditions. Changes in behaviour and emotions after experiencing a stressful and potentially traumatic event are common and to be expected. Children can adapt and recover with support over time. Instead of applying diagnostic labels in the immediate aftermath, it can be more helpful to focus on providing a supportive and flexible approach, acknowledging that children’s responses may evolve over time.

However, persistent or severe trauma responses that disrupt a child’s daily life may suggest a potential mental health concern. An estimated 30% of children and adolescents exposed to a disaster are at risk of a diagnosable mental health condition (Newnham et al., 2022) and many more are likely to experience mental health challenges (i.e. subclinical level symptoms). As such, it is important to monitor for symptoms of post-traumatic stress, anxiety, depression and other mental health conditions (Newnham et al., 2022; Stafford et al., 2012).

In the following video (5 minutes, 48 seconds) practitioners and a parent with lived experience discuss common behavioural and emotional changes in children who have experienced a disaster and what parents and practitioners can do in response.

Early identification of children at increased risk of these conditions in the weeks, months and years after a disaster, and referral to targeted support, is beneficial. This can be challenging as there is no definitive timeline indicating when it is best to seek support – highlighting the importance of referral (e.g. to a general practitioner) and ongoing observation and consideration of a child’s unique experience and circumstances.

Some indicators that a child may need further mental health support include:

• their symptoms are causing severe disruption to aspects of their life
• their symptoms persist (>1 month) or worsen over time
• a significant change from the child’s pre-disaster behaviour, emotions or functioning
• behavioural or emotional responses preventing the child from engaging in age-appropriate tasks
• behavioural or emotional responses that are more intense or frequent than is typical of other children their age
• behavioural or emotional responses that disrupt others, particularly in their learning community or home environment, on a regular basis
• concerns existing in multiple contexts (e.g. the problem occurs at school and at home)
• parents have concerns about the child’s or family’s functioning, are overwhelmed by their child’s support needs, or are distressed by the situation.

To ascertain the type of support needed, it’s necessary to consider:

• the duration and intensity of a child’s symptoms
• the child’s history and family circumstances before, during and after the disaster
• any change in baseline/pre-disaster behaviour or in relationships
• any new behaviours that may be linked to the disaster exposure (e.g. re-enactment of the disaster, regressive behaviours, somatic complaints, extreme fear or anxiety, etc.)
• any previous experiences of disasters or other types of adversity
• how the parent is going with supporting the child.

Understanding the child’s experience of the disaster can also be helpful. This includes determining if:

• they were directly or indirectly exposed to the hazard
• their life was threatened
• they were evacuated
• they were separated from a parent
• they or their parents were involved in the emergency response
• they received community support or felt isolated
• there are other safety concerns such as family domestic violence.

Remember, it is crucial to approach these discussions with sensitivity and care. Providing an opportunity for the child or parent to share their experiences can be valuable, but it is important to ensure that this is done in a way that avoids re-traumatisation or distress. If they are not ready or willing to discuss their experiences, this should be respected. Creating a safe and supportive environment for these conversations will help in understanding their needs and providing appropriate support.

Being curious and asking parents and other adults in the child’s life the following questions may help to determine the level of support required. These questions may be helpful in an initial screening process, or for ongoing monitoring and watchful waiting:

• What are the child’s coping strengths and have these been useful to the child during and after the disaster?
• Is the behaviour you are observing very different from the child’s behaviour before the disaster?
• Was the child experiencing challenges before the disaster (e.g. illness, disability, moving house etc.)? If so, how well have they coped with these?
• Are there co-existing adversities already experienced by the child (e.g. parental mental illness, parental substance use)?
• How close was the child to the disaster event? Were they directly exposed to the hazard? Or were they indirectly exposed to the event (e.g. living in the affected area but not directly experiencing the event, watching through media or vicariously affected through family member experiences)? How long were they exposed to the immediate threat or stressful conditions?
• Has the child experienced loss because of the disaster (e.g. loss of family members, friends, pets, their home or learning community)?
• Did the child experience fear for their survival or that of a family member, friend or pet during the disaster?
• Are there ongoing challenges or stressors for the child or their family (home disaster-affected, loss of assets/income/resources)? How are these secondary stressors affecting the child and their family?
• Are there persistent and ongoing concerns?
• How is the child going at their early learning service or school? Are their educators observing challenges with learning or behaviours, or emotions that require support?
• Have there been any significant changes related to the child’s social interactions at home, school or elsewhere?
• What strategies have been tried to address these challenges, and how effective have they been?
• What support have you used or are there any other supports available?

Ongoing and proactive monitoring and timely linking to the right type of support can reduce the potential long-term negative impacts of a disaster experience on children’s social, emotional, behavioural and physical development and help children thrive.

The following factsheets describe potential trauma responses across different age groups:

In any practice aimed at supporting infants and children, engaging with them is crucial. Children have the right to contribute to the decisions that affect them (United Nations, 1989). As experts in their own lives, they have unique and valuable insights, knowledge and skills to offer. Encouraging children’s participation can enhance their self-esteem and problem-solving skills, help practitioners and organisations to make more accurate and effective decisions, and improve the availability of programs and services that meet the needs of communities (Paterson & Hunter, 2020). Engaging with children is about working with them in ways that centre their strengths, skills, preferences and know-how.

Why is it important to engage children?

Children can feel invisible or unimportant in the aftermath of a disaster. The event may have left them with powerful and upsetting memories and a sense of feeling helpless. It is important for children’s long-term wellbeing, growth and development to strengthen their self-esteem, self-confidence and sense of personal value. Children need to develop belief in themselves as agents who can make decisions, take action and change things around them (their self-efficacy and sense of agency). It is also important to strengthen their sense of participation, helping them feel they are members of a community that can keep people safe and work toward positive change.

In the following video (4 minutes, 28 seconds) practitioners and parents whose families have experienced disaster discuss why it is essential to support children’s agency and participation when engaging with them after a disaster.

In practice, engaging children benefits them in many different ways. It creates contexts for children to:

• have a voice in matters that affect their life
• recognise their own skills and know-how
• see themselves in a different light, not overshadowed by the problem
• have their skills, knowledge, values and hopes recognised and valued by others
• gain an increased sense of their own agency to influence their life
• contribute to other people’s lives, including those facing similar circumstances.

Engaging children can increase collaboration with children and their families. It can enhance practice and children’s outcomes by privileging the child’s views, experiences and evaluations, and by making practitioners accountable to their feedback.

Following are some strategies for effectively engaging infants and children.

• Create safe and supportive spaces where children feel physically, psychologically and culturally safe. A reassuring environment away from physical threats and dangers is important.
• Encourage creative endeavours where children feel comfortable expressing themselves through various mediums, such as art, storytelling or play. Support children in developing emotional literacy skills by helping them find the language to understand and express their feelings. This approach not only allows children to communicate their emotions and experiences, but also strengthens their ability to participate actively in their own recovery and decision-making processes.
• Offer children choices in decision-making processes related to their support and recovery. Allow children to have agency in selecting activities, interventions or coping strategies that resonate with their interests, strengths and cultural preferences, including whether or not to engage in activities with others. This approach fosters a sense of ownership and empowerment over their healing journey. Even a choice as small as what to wear for the day can promote a child’s sense of agency. Providing options for participation, including the choice to opt out of group activities if they prefer, respects their autonomy and supports their comfort and willingness to engage.
• Provide opportunities to participate in developmentally appropriate activities. Involve children in clean-up, rebuilding and recovery efforts in ways appropriate to their age and development. For example, even very young people can help a parent hose mud from steps or put rubbish into a bin. Encourage children to participate in games and activities that give them a sense of mastery or achievement. Praise their efforts and help them take satisfaction in even small successes. Craft activities and games can give young children the experience of participating in ‘symbolic restoration’.
• View children as active partners in the process of recovery rather than passive recipients of care. Collaborate with children as co-creators of solutions, seeking their input and feedback, and partners in designing and implementing support that addresses their unique needs and preferences.
• Acknowledge and celebrate children’s strengths, resilience and coping skills as valuable assets in navigating recovery challenges. Encourage children to identify and use their innate strengths and resources to overcome adversity. This helps foster a sense of self-confidence, competence and empowerment in their ability to cope and build resilience through experiences of adversity.

Shifts in perspective

Engaging with children may require some shifts in perspective when thinking about and working with children. These five overlapping shifts will enable you to better engage with children as partners in practice. While you may be well on the way to incorporating these perspectives into your work with children, consider if there are ways in which you could further integrate and develop them in your practice.

Learn more about each of these shifts in perspective by selecting headings in the following list.

Recognising the participation of infants

While older children can directly express their thoughts and preferences, it is crucial to acknowledge that infants also participate. Infants are expressive beings who communicate their needs, interests and emotions through non-verbal cues such as facial expressions, body movements and vocalisations. Engaging with infants requires recognising and responding to these cues, which primary caregivers are often best positioned to interpret and return.

In practice, supporting infants’ participation means creating environments where they can engage in age-appropriate activities that promote their wellbeing. This could include offering opportunities for play and exploration by providing a clean, soft mat to lay on, soft plush toys, textured fabric books, stacking cups or sensory balls in temporary accommodation or post-disaster playgroups for parents with young children. It is also essential to support parents in recognising and responding to their infants’ cues, such as facial expressions, body movements and vocalisations, which are key indicators of their needs and emotions. Ensuring that parents feel supported and calm is equally important, as their own emotional state significantly influences the infant’s ability to feel secure and engaged.

To best interpret and respond to infants’ needs, it is essential to work closely with their primary caregivers, who are intimately familiar with their unique ways of communicating. Creating opportunities for parents and infants to engage in enjoyable, calming activities supports co-regulation and strengthens their bond, which is fundamental to the infant’s overall development and sense of safety.

Using a trauma-informed approach

It is important to recognise that each child is unique, with varying capacities, needs and readiness to participate. Some children may be eager to contribute, while others may feel too exhausted, depleted or overwhelmed by the distress they have experienced. For these children, attempts to engage them may be contraindicated as it could trigger re-exposure to powerful memories or reactions they are not ready to process.

A trauma-informed approach is essential in these situations. This means being sensitive to the child’s emotional state and current capacity, and responding with flexibility and care. Engagement should always be individualised, considering the specific needs, developmental stage, temperament and context of each child. It is important you give children the choice to participate, recognising and respecting their comfort levels and boundaries. This involves not only listening to their verbal responses but also attuning to their non-verbal cues, such as behaviour, body language and emotional regulation. Providing options for how and when they engage allows children to feel a sense of control and agency in the process.

Further, adults must remain mindful of their own verbal and non-verbal behaviours. This is crucial because children are highly perceptive of the cues they receive from adults. How an adult communicates – whether through words, tone, body language or facial expressions – can significantly influence a child’s sense of safety and trust. For example, by sitting down at the same eye-level as the child, making gentle eye contact, smiling and being physically predictable you contribute to creating a non-threatening environment where the child feels more at ease.

Children, especially those who have experienced trauma, may be particularly sensitive to sudden movements, loud voices or other behaviours that could be perceived as threatening or overwhelming. By adjusting their behaviours, adults can help to regulate the child’s emotional state, fostering a sense of calm and security. This mindful approach not only helps to build trust but also supports the child’s ability to engage meaningfully in the process. Allowing silences and giving the child space to respond in their own time are equally important, as this respects the child’s pace and comfort level. Using these strategies, you can create an environment where children feel valued, understood and empowered to express themselves.

Further learning

There are five essential elements that are widely recognised as foundational principles for providing psychosocial support to people in distress after a potentially traumatic event (Hobfoll et al., 2007; 2021). They were developed through expert consensus, and informed by international research, empirical evidence and practice experience, to guide care and support for people in distress during and after a ‘mass trauma’ event, such as a disaster (Hobfoll et al., 2007).

These five elements have been adopted as a framework to support infant and child resilience and psychosocial recovery before, during and after a disaster (Curtin et al., 2023). Many practices in this guide are recommended because they support one or more of the five elements.

Select the following headings to learn more about the five essential elements of psychosocial support.

Supporting infants and children after a disaster requires a multifaceted approach that considers their unique developmental needs, their ecology and the complex influences of potentially traumatic events on their mental health and wellbeing.

There are a variety of practice strategies that can foster resilience, emotional regulation and a sense of safety and stability in infants and children. These can be broadly grouped into six domains for support:

• Child–adult relationships
• Emotional regulation
• Communication and meaning-making
• Play and creative expression
• Routines and predictability
• Support networks

The following resources offer evidence-based and trauma-informed strategies that practitioners and parents can use to support children’s resilience during disaster recovery. They include practice scenarios and case studies of how these strategies can be implemented.

• Strategies for supporting infant and child mental health after disasters: Child–adult relationships explores how practitioners and parents can help children to develop safe relationships with other caring adults. It offers ways to support children’s empowerment through communication and by providing choices, plus advice on managing transitions and bridging the gaps between different care settings.
• Strategies for supporting infant and child mental health after disasters: Emotional regulation explains the importance of connection, emotional literacy and environment in helping children feel safe, and how regulation can be achieved through the body using sensory- and movement-based exercises, along with fun, relaxing and mindfulness activities.
• Strategies for supporting infant and child mental health after disasters: Communication and meaning-making offers strategies to support children in making sense of their experiences and processing their feelings to help reduce distress, and prevent trauma and mental health difficulties.
• Strategies for supporting infant and child mental health after disasters: Play and creative expression demonstrates how play is an important tool for helping children unpack, explore and process difficult experiences like disaster. Creative expression is encouraged as a way for children to communicate about complex emotions and feelings, especially when they might be difficult to articulate verbally.
• Strategies for supporting infant and child mental health after disasters: Routines and predictability shares how crucial routines and predictability are for restoring children’s sense of stability and safety in a post-disaster world that can feel scary and unfamiliar. Providing structure by setting boundaries and expectations can help reassure children while they are away from their primary carers. Engaging children in making decisions about new routines can develop their agency and support their self-esteem.
• Supporting infant and child mental health after disasters: Support networks explains the role of extended family, friends and community, as well as learning communities, specialist mental health services and digital resources in providing avenues for emotional support and expression, and mutual assistance and collective problem-solving.

The practice strategies in each resource are tailored to children’s relevant developmental stages and contextual factors in the weeks, months and years after a disaster. They can be adapted to fit various contexts and professional settings.

While these resources provide valuable strategies that can be used by various practitioners, you are encouraged to work within your scope of practice and discipline, adapting strategies as needed to best support the children and families you work with. The field of community trauma and disaster recovery is evolving, and staying informed about the latest research and best practice is crucial for delivering effective support. To enhance your skills in these areas you are encouraged to consider opportunities for further training and supervision, while engaging with learning resources and new evidence as it emerges.

Infants and children need support from adults in the immediate response phase of a disaster, in short-term recovery and in long-term recovery. However, generally the adults around them have also been affected by the disaster. When children need them most their parents and other trusted adults in their lives may have less than usual capacity to provide time, attention, calm, responsiveness and reassurance. So, an important practice strategy to support children’s wellbeing is to provide practical and emotional support for parents to reduce their burdens, enhance their wellbeing and strengthen their capacity to care for their children.

Similar principles apply to educators and teachers, emergency and support personnel and other adults who support infants and children through times of stress. Metaphors such as ‘fit your own oxygen mask before helping others’ and ‘you can’t pour from an empty cup’ are commonly used to remind adults that their own wellbeing is important in helping them support the wellbeing of children.

Adults generally have more capacity than young children to reflect on their own wellbeing and identify ‘self-care’ strategies, but stress may diminish the capacity for reflection, creative problem-solving and executive functioning needed to put self-care into practice. Adults’ usual options for looking after their own wellbeing may not be available following a disaster. There is also a risk that emphasising the importance of self-care may place an additional burden or source of guilt on a person who already has many extra responsibilities to meet. Some of the responsibility for the wellbeing of adults affected by disasters must be taken up by systems around the family, including parents’ workplaces, human services, social networks and communities. An element of preparedness in systems is having plans and resources in place to support the wellbeing of adults in times of disaster or disruption, so they can provide care for children.

Key practices

• Guide parents and professionals on supporting children, including providing strategies and resources for talking about the disaster, managing children’s emotions, and maintaining routines. This may include offering parenting programs and resources for parents to use with their children.
• Offer practical support to parents and caregivers as well as affected professionals, including access to financial aid, help with daily tasks, and practical resources to reduce their burdens and enhance their capacity to care for children.
• Provide opportunities and spaces that support the parent–child relationship, such as safe play spaces for children and families, play groups, or community barbeques in clean locations. For instance, the Australian Childhood Foundation supported a bushfire-affected community by creating the ChildSPACE Program which was for children and families to connect as well as access resources and services. Yarra Ranges Council worked with Eco-Explorers to create bush playgroups to support dads and their connection with their children (video).
• Provide emotional support through counselling and support groups to help parents manage their stress and emotional wellbeing during and after a disaster.
• Promote manageable self-care practices for professionals by offering practical, feasible strategies that fit their immediate needs and circumstances. You can read more about this in Wellbeing for workers supporting children and families after a disaster.
• Provide training and resources for professionals who are supporting children on managing their own stress and effectively supporting children’s emotional needs.
• Strengthen community support networks to ensure adults have access to resources and social support, and encourage connections among parents and professionals for mutual assistance.
• Encourage systemic preparedness by working with workplaces, social services, and community organisations to create robust support systems for adults affected by disasters.

Learn more about Working with parents to support children after disasters.

Supporting children in understanding adult responses

Helping children navigate the complexities of adult behaviour, especially in times of stress or adversity, is important. Young children are often egocentric in their thinking, meaning they naturally view the world through their own perspective and may believe they are the cause of events around them, including how adults respond to challenges. This developmental stage can lead to misunderstandings where children mistakenly assume responsibility for adult emotions or behaviours, which can result in feelings of guilt, anxiety or confusion.

It is important to provide children with guidance that helps them interpret adult behaviour in a way that is both developmentally appropriate and emotionally protective. This approach is especially important in situations where the behaviour of adults who are important in the life of a child may be inconsistent, unpredictable or harmful.

Key practices

• When working with children, use language that aligns with their level of understanding to explain why adults might be upset or distracted. For example, you might say, ‘Sometimes grown-ups get worried about big problems, but it’s not about anything you’ve done.’ Reassure children that they are not to blame for how adults feel or behave. In cases where a child’s environment may be unsafe, it will be necessary to collaborate with appropriate services to ensure the child’s safety and wellbeing.
• Encourage children to express their observations and feelings. If a child says, ‘My teacher seems mad at me’, you could respond with, ‘It sounds like your teacher might be feeling frustrated. Let’s talk about what happened so we can understand why they might feel that way. Sometimes, teachers get upset when they are trying to help everyone follow the rules or stay safe. But remember, we can always work on how to do things differently next time.’
• You can try calming techniques like deep breathing or rhythmic movement during sessions with children, not only to help the child handle strong emotions but also to model these techniques for parents or educators. Engaging in physical activities like squeezing a stress ball, drawing or using a weighted blanket can be introduced to both the child and the adults in their life as tools for emotional regulation. Additionally, teaching children to identify and name their feelings can empower them to express themselves, while also guiding adults in how to support this process by encouraging open conversations about emotions.
• Be vigilant in identifying and addressing any misconceptions children may have about their role in adult emotions. For example, if a child expresses that they think they caused their parent’s sadness or substance use, you might gently correct this by explaining, ‘Your parent is upset because of something else, not because of anything you did.’

Engage with parents

When possible, work with parents to ensure they understand the impact of their behaviour on children. Offer them strategies to communicate with their children in ways that reduce the risk of the child feeling responsible for adult stress.

Prevent or reduce adverse impacts of separation of children from their primary caregivers

In an emergency like a disaster, it is instinctual for parents to want to keep their children close and vice versa. Sometimes this is not possible or safe (e.g. if the child is in another care setting and a disaster hazard makes it unsafe for parents to pick them up). Parents may also decide that sending children away from the threat of the hazard to be cared for by others, such as family members, may be safer for the child.

In these situations, it is crucial for adults caring for separated children to support their sense of safety, connection, calm, agency and hope. Whenever possible, facilitate some form of connection between the child and their parents, such as through text messaging, video or phone calls. Even if telecommunications are unavailable, passing on messages from parents that they are safe, send their love and will reunite soon can be comforting. As much as possible, provide opportunities for play in the present moment and distraction from the stress of separation. Use strategies to help the child relax and feel hopeful about reunion with their parents soon.

After a disaster, children may feel upset about the time they were separated from their primary caregivers. Tune into – and encourage parents to be attuned to – what children are thinking and how they are feeling. Usually, extra cuddles and closeness with their parents, combined with regulation-based activities (see paper Emotional regulation), help infants and children’s feelings of distress resolve quickly. Older children may feel guilty about not being part of the response, or not being able to protect or care for the safety of their loved adults, animals or home.

Speaking with children about how or why the separation occurred will help them understand and to make meaning of the period of separation. Encourage parents to talk with their children and get to know each other’s stories. For example, the child may have questions about what their parent was doing during the disaster as part of piecing together their understanding of the event. Similarly, it is helpful for the parent to understand the child’s experience during the period of separation.

Children of any age may hold upsetting thoughts and beliefs that need to be gently corrected. For example, they might think their parent stayed away on purpose, or still feel distressed because they thought their parent would never return. Practitioners can use social stories to help the child bring the event into a narrative form that makes sense to them. Social stories are simple, personalised narratives used to help children manage and make meaning of their experiences – like the reasons for separation from parents/family. They present information in a clear, structured way, often incorporating illustrations, to explain what happened, why it happened and what to expect. Social stories can be used through a variety of mediums such as talking, drawing, writing, reading, using puppets or other types of pretend play.

A coherent story of what happened, why the separation was necessary, what the child and parent/s were experiencing and how they felt, and how they were able to reunite, can help the child adjust after emotional experiences that felt overwhelming at the time. An important aspect of this process is for parents to share with their children how they felt about having to leave them behind. Hearing about the parent’s emotional experience provides the child with a shift in perspective, helping them understand that their parents’ separation was deeply distressing for them as well. This mutual sharing of feelings allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the separation and facilitates recovery and processing for both the child and the parent. Knowing each other’s stories, both real and imagined, supports understanding of fears, worries and the potential for healing.

Sadly, sometimes, as a consequence of a disaster, a child loses a primary caregiver or someone else they care about, or a beloved pet or animal. Children can also experience the grief of losing important objects and places. Children’s grief can be complex and varied, often characterised by periods of emotional intensity followed by periods of apparent normalcy. Recognising that grief can be episodic helps adults be prepared for recurring expressions of grief and provide consistent support.

In addition to the practices outlined in the section Practice guidance: Strategies for supporting the mental health of infants and children after a disaster the following strategies, it can be useful to consider:

Developmentally appropriate communication

Tailoring communication about loss to the child’s developmental stage is crucial. Younger children may need simple, concrete explanations, while older children might benefit from more detailed discussions. Providing age-appropriate resources and guidance can support their understanding and coping. For more information, see this Kids Helpline resource: Supporting a child through grief and loss.

Incorporating rituals and memorials

Creating opportunities for children to remember and honour their loved ones can be an important part of the grieving process. Encouraging them to participate in memorial activities or personal rituals can provide a sense of closure and continuity.

Stories and resources

Resources can be used to help support young children who have lost a loved one. Some of these are listed following:

Supporting the mental health and development of infants and children following disasters requires a nuanced understanding of their unique needs and strengths at various developmental stages. The aim of this practice paper is to support practitioners by providing practical strategies and insights to address the immediate and long-term impacts of disasters on infants and children. By implementing a range of strategies, practitioners can directly engage with children to mitigate the effects of disasters and foster resilience. Additionally, these strategies can be used to enhance the capacity of parents and other important adults in a child’s life, enabling them to better support and nurture the child’s recovery. Engaging children as active participants in their recovery further empowers them, enhancing their sense of agency and self-efficacy, which is crucial for their overall wellbeing and resilience.

The strategies and related resources shared in this paper, when used in conjunction with other practice papers in the Supporting infants and children in disasters practice guide, offer a comprehensive approach to supporting children and families before, during and after disasters. By integrating these practices into their work, practitioners can ensure a holistic support system that addresses both the immediate needs and ongoing challenges children face over the long term. As disasters become more frequent and severe, practitioners need to remain informed and adaptable, continually building their skills and confidence to effectively support the mental health and developmental needs of the children they serve.

Australian Red Cross. (2024). Pillowcase workshops [Web page].

Cadamuro, A., Birtel, M. D., Di Bernardo, G. A., Crapolicchio, E., Vezzali, L., & Drury, J. (2021). Resilience in children in the aftermath of disasters: A systematic review and a new perspective on individual, interpersonal, group, and intergroup level factors. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 31(3), 259–275. DOI: 10.1002/casp.2500.

Cavallo, A. (2014). Integrating disaster preparedness and resilience: A complex approach using System of Systems. Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 29(3), 46–51.

Center on the Developing Child (n.d). Resilience [Web page]. Harvard University.

Cohen, E., & Gadassi, R. (2018). The function of play for coping and therapy with children exposed to disasters and political violence. Current Psychiatry Reports, 20(5), 31. DOI: 10.1007/s11920-018-0895-x.

Curtin, M., Parnell, T., Anderson, D., Rassafiani, M., Whitsed, R., Bowles, W., & Davison, & W. R. (2023). Royal Far West bushfire recovery program: Phase 2 evaluation: Final report. Charles Sturt University.

De Young, A. C., Keleher, S., Baldwin, A., & Kenardy, J. A. (In press). Preventative early intervention for children and adolescents exposed to trauma. In M. A. Landolt, M. Cloitre, & U. Schnyder (Eds.), Evidence-based treatments for trauma related disorders in children and adolescents (pp. 121–143). Springer International Publishing.

Eagland, S., Curtin, M., & Parnell, T. (2024). After the disaster: Facilitating children to talk of their feeling and experiences. In International perspectives on early childhood education and development (pp. 197–208). Springer Science and Business Media B.V.

Fothergill, A., & Peek, L. (2015). Children of Katrina. University of Texas Press.

Hobfoll, S. E., Watson, P., Bell ,C. C., Bryant, R. A., Brymer, M. J., Friedman, M. J., Friedman, M., Gersons, B. P. R., de Jong, J. T., Layne, C. M., Maguen, S., Neria, Y., Norwood, A. E., Pynoos, R. S., Reissman, D., Ruzek, J. I., Shalev, A. Y., Solomon, Z., Steinberg, A. M., & Ursano, R. J. (2007). Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: Empirical evidence. Psychiatry, 70(4), 283–369. DOI: 10.1521/psyc.2007.70.4.283.

Hobfoll, S. E., Watson, P., Bell, C. C., Bryant, R. A., Brymer, M. J., Friedman, M. J., Friedman, M., Gersons, B. P. R., de Jong, J., Layne, C. M., Maguen, S., Neria, Y., Norwood, A. E., Pynoos, R. S., Reissman, D., Ruzek, J. I., Shalev, A. Y., Solomon, Z., Steinberg, A. M., & Ursano, R. J. (2021). Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: Empirical evidence. Psychiatry, 84(4), 311–346. DOI: 10.1080/00332747.2021.2005387.

Kazak, A. E., Kassam-Adams, N., Schneider, S., Zelikovsky, N., Alderfer, M. A., & Rourke, M. (2006). An integrative model of pediatric medical traumatic stress. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31(4), 343–355. DOI: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsj054.

Kenardy, J. A., Thompson, K., Le Brocque, R. M., & Olsson, K. (2008). Information-provision intervention for children and their parents following pediatric accidental injury. European Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 316–325. DOI: 10.1007/s00787-007-0673-5.

Kramer, D. N., & Landolt, M. A. (2011). Characteristics and efficacy of early psychological interventions in children and adolescents after single trauma: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 2(1). DOI: 10.3402/ejpt.v2i0.7858.

La Greca, A. M., Silverman, W. K., Vernberg, E. M., & Prinstein, M. J. (1996). Symptoms of posttraumatic stress in children after Hurricane Andrew: A prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(4), 712–723. DOI: 10.1037/0022-006X.64.4.712.

Le Brocque, R. M., De Young, A., Montague, G., Pocock, S., March, S., Triggell, N., Rabaa, C., & Kenardy, J. A. (2017). Schools and natural disaster recovery: The unique and vital role that teachers and education professionals play in ensuring the mental health of students following natural disasters. Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools, 27(1), 1–23. DOI: 10.1017/jgc.2016.17.

Le Brocque, R., & Triggell, N. (2023). How schools can help students cope with the stress of a major disaster. In B. A. Gerrard, E. J. Hernandez, & S. Deb (Eds.), School-based family counselling for crisis and disaster: Global perspectives (pp. 61–77). Routledge.

MacKillop Family Services. (n.d.). Stormbirds program [Web page].

McDermott, B. (2014). Opinion: Disasters, children and families: Have we arrived at a comprehensive model of emotional health care? The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 29(1), 10–11.

McDermott, B. M., & Cobham, V. E. (2014). A stepped-care model of post-disaster child and adolescent mental health service provision. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(1). DOI: 10.3402/ejpt.v5.24294.

Marsac, M. L., Kassam-Adams, N., Delahanty, D. L., Widaman, K. F., & Barakat, L. P. (2014). Posttraumatic stress following acute medical trauma in children: A proposed model of bio-psycho-social processes during the peri-trauma period. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 17(4), 399–411. DOI: 10.1007/s10567-014-0174-2.

Masten, A. S., & Motti-Stefanidi, F. (2020). Multisystem resilience for children and youth in disaster: Reflections in the context of COVID-19. Adversity and Resilience Science, 1(2), 95–106. DOI: 10.1007/s42844-020-00010-w.

Newnham, E. A., Mergelsberg, E. L. P., Chen, Y., Kim, Y., Gibbs, L., Dzidic, P. L., Ishida DaSilva, M., Chan, E. Y. Y., Shimomura, K., Narita, Z., Huang, Z., & Leaning, J. (2022). Long-term mental health trajectories after disasters and pandemics: A multilingual systematic review of prevalence, risk, and protective factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 97, 102203. DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102203.

Paterson, N., & Hunter, C. (2020). An overview of child participation: Key issues for organisations and practitioners. Emerging Minds.

Powell, T., Muller, J. M., & Wetzel, G. (2023). Evidence-based interventions for children and families during disaster recovery: Trends, lessons learned, and future directions. In S. E. Ortiz, S. M. McHale, V. King, & J. E. Glick (Eds.), Environmental impacts on families: Change, challenge, and adaptation (pp. 23–39). Springer Nature Switzerland. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-22649-6_2.

Price, J., Kassam-Adams, N., Alderfer, M. A., Christofferson, J., & Kazak, A. E. (2015). Systematic review: A reevaluation and update of the Integrative (Trajectory) Model of Pediatric Medical Traumatic Stress. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 41(1), 86–97. DOI: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsv074.

Queensland Centre for Perinatal and Infant Mental Health. (2022). Birdie’s tree early learning program. Queensland Government.

Save the Children. (2021). After the storm: A perspective on the immediate relief and recovery approaches implemented to support children. Submission to Phase 2 of the Inquiry into the 2019–20 Victorian Fire Season.

Stafford, B., Schonfeld, D., Keselman, L., Ventevogel, P., & Lopez Stewart, C. (2012). The emotional impact of disaster on children and families (Module 9). American Academy of Pediatrics.

United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 20 November, 1989.

Vernberg, E. M. (2002). Intervention approaches following disasters. In A. M. L. Greca, W. K. Silverman, E. M. Vernberg, & M. C. Roberts (Eds.), Helping children cope with disasters and terrorism. American Psychological Association.

Vernberg, E. M., Hambrick, E. P., Cho, B., & Hendrickson, M. L. (2016). Positive psychology and disaster mental health: Strategies for working with children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 72(12), 1333–1347. DOI: 10.1002/jclp.22289.

Vernberg, E. M., La Greca, A. M., Silverman, W. K., & Prinstein, M. J. (1996). Prediction of posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after Hurricane Andrew. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105(2), 237–248. DOI: 10.1037/0021-843X.105.2.237.

Whaley, G. L., Varma, V., Hawks, E. M., Cowperthwaite, R., Arlee, L., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2020). Risk and resilience in children in the context of mass trauma. Psychiatric Annals, 50(9), 387–392. DOI: 10.3928/00485713-20200812-02.