The impact of paternal positivity on child mental health

Introduction

Both mothers and fathers play a key role in the health and development of their children (Cabrera et al., 2018). While mothers are still disproportionately responsible for childcare and household labour, fathers are now more involved in the daily care of children than in previous decades (Cabrera et al., 2018). Understanding which fathering practices can improve child mental health is important for promoting child wellbeing and effective parenting. This short article translates into plain language the findings of a meta-analysis by Foster et al. (2022) that examined the impact of paternal positivity on child mental health.

What is paternal positivity?

Child–parent relationships can contain ‘negative’ and ‘positive’ elements (Oliver & Pike, 2018; Rasbash et al., 2011). Parental negativity can include caregiving attitudes and behaviours such as disapproval, criticism and hostility (Oliver & Pike, 2018; Rasbash et al., 2011). Parental positivity can include caregiving attitudes and behaviours, such as:

• warmth
• affection
• nurturance
• encouragement
• involvement
• closeness; and
• praise.

(Foster et al., 2022; Oliver & Pike, 2018; Rasbash et al., 2011)

Paternal positivity refers to positive caregiving attitudes and behaviours expressed by, and directed from, a father towards their child.

What does the evidence say about paternal positivity and child mental health?

Foster et al. (2022) conducted the first meta-analysis of 59 studies to examine the impact of paternal positivity on children’s mental health challenges.

This meta-analysis found that children (aged 0–17 years) whose fathers showed more paternal positivity were less likely to have mental health challenges. This finding was consistent across different study designs and for both internalising (e.g. depression, anxiety) and externalising (e.g. problem behaviours, hyperactivity) mental health challenges. However, the effect size (a calculation that measures how closely two factors are related to each other) of paternal positivity on child mental health was small. This finding is consistent with previous studies which found that the effect size of both maternal positivity and fathering sensitivity on child mental health were also small (Foster et al., 2022).

The association between paternal positivity and child mental health was shown to be stronger in certain populations or circumstances (Foster et al., 2022).

• Families from low socioeconomic communities showed a stronger association between paternal positivity and reduced internalising and externalising behaviours compared to families from higher socioeconomic communities. Foster et al. (2022) suggest that the strength of the association may be weaker for children in families with higher income levels because these families may be able to afford other means to support their children’s mental health, which may protect these children from experiencing mental health challenges.
• Studies that had a higher proportion of girls in the sample showed a stronger association between paternal positivity and reduced externalising behaviour. Foster et al. (2022) suggest that fathers may be more likely to use paternal positivity with girls, who generally demonstrate lower levels of externalising behaviours. Girls may also display more externalising behaviours when their fathers don’t show paternal positivity, and/or fathers may be less likely to use paternal positivity when girls display externalising behaviours (Foster et al., 2022).
• Children in middle childhood and adolescence had a stronger association between paternal positivity and reduced externalising behaviours compared to preschool children. Foster et al. (2022) suggest that older children may benefit more from paternal positivity as they have experienced it for longer than younger children. Fathers may also spend more time with their children in middle childhood and adolescence (Foster et al., 2022).

How might paternal positivity impact child mental health?

There is no one clear explanation why paternal positivity may be associated with child mental health. Foster et al. (2022) suggest that possible explanations may include:

• Children of fathers who show more positive emotion and behaviour may learn to mirror these emotions and behaviours themselves, subsequently benefiting the child’s mental health.
• Fathers who respond positively to their children and their children’s challenges may in turn help their children to learn healthy coping skills and emotional regulation, which are important for promoting mental health.
• Father’s positivity may help to foster strong and healthy relationships with their children, which has long term benefits for the health and wellbeing of the child.

How can practitioners support fathers to use paternal positivity?

The findings from the Foster et al (2022) review have implications for practitioners working with fathers, children and families. Where possible, practitioners can support paternal positivity by:

• considering ways to intentionally engage fathers in parenting programs and services for children and families. Practitioners can look to guidelines for father-inclusive practice including those under Further reading and resources
• asking fathers to share their experiences of being a father and fatherhood with practitioners. This may help fathers to become engaged and create space for them to have conversations about their caregiving
• talking to fathers about their caregiving behaviours and paternal positivity. Practitioners can have conversations with fathers about how positive caregiving behaviours can benefit their children
• taking a strengths-based approach to working with fathers (for more guidance on strength-based approaches see King, 2005). Practitioners can encourage fathers to engage in positive behaviours by focusing on what they are already doing well and encourage the use of more positive behaviours and emotions in their caregiving
• being curious with fathers about whether there are barriers they might be facing that inhibit their ability to display positive caregiving behaviours and emotions
• looking to appropriate and validated scales for measuring parent–child relationships and identifying fathering strengths. This may help practitioners assess whether fathers are already displaying paternal positivity and understand the child–father relationship.

Conclusion

Children of fathers who display more paternal positivity are less likely to have mental health challenges. The association between paternal positivity and child mental health was stronger for families from low socioeconomic communities, studies that had a higher proportion of girls in the sample, and children in middle childhood and adolescence. Practitioners working with families could consider how to increase participation from fathers in services, practice curiosity and explore strengths and challenges related to fatherhood and fathering as outlined in some of the following resources.

Further reading and resources

The following Emerging Minds resources provide practitioners with more information on engaging fathers to support their mental health, parenting role and participation in services.

Webinars

• Supporting fathers’ mental health during the perinatal period
• Engaging fathers and their children, on encouraging fathers’ participation in services

Podcasts

• Supporting dads in their role as fathers

Guides

On father-inclusive practice:

• Engaging fathers in early childhood services
• Enhancing father engagement in parenting programs: A challenge for practitioners and policymakers

On supporting paternal mental health:

• Fathers’ mental health and parenting: Implications for promoting children’s mental health

For fathers and non-birthing parents:

• Adjusting to parenthood

Courses

• Rebuilding our shields: Sharing the stories of deadly dads is a free online course for non-Indigenous practitioners working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander fathers, children and families.

How was this resource developed?

As previously mentioned, this short article summarises the findings of a meta-analysis conducted by Foster et al. (2022) titled, Paternal Positivity and Child Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis, and discusses implications for practice. This study was published in the Journal of Child and Family Studies in August 2022.

A meta-analysis is a type of study that systematically reviews evidence and uses statistical techniques to combine the results of different individual studies on a particular topic. By combining the results from multiple studies, meta-analyses can calculate a more precise estimate of an association between two factors (e.g. paternal positivity and child mental health) than an individual study (Haidich, 2010).

Foster et al. (2022) searched for published and unpublished studies using terms related to ‘fathers’, ‘positivity’ and ‘mental health’ up to June 2018. They found 59 studies that examined the impact of paternal positivity on child mental health.

Although these studies were conducted in the United States, Europe and the United Kingdom they provide Australian-based practitioners with useful and relevant insights into the relationship between paternal positivity and child mental health.

However, studies of children with developmental disabilities (e.g. autism, down syndrome, learning disabilities) or a medical diagnosis (e.g. cancer, cerebral palsy) were excluded. This means that this review may not be able to tell us about the impact of paternal positivity on child mental health among children with complex health conditions.

References

Cabrera, N. J., Volling, B. L., & Barr, R. (2018). Fathers are parents, too! Widening the lens on parenting for children’s development. Child Development Perspectives, 12(3), 152–157.

Foster, D., Rodrigues, M., Somir, I., Aziz, T., Patel, R., Ragunathan, S., Sokolovic, N., & Jenkins, J. (2022). Paternal positivity and child mental health: A meta-analysis. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 31(9), 1–15.

Haidich, A. B. (2010). Meta-analysis in medical research. Hippokratia, 14(Suppl 1), 29–37.

King, A. (2005). The ‘quiet revolution’ amongst men: Developing the practice of working with men in family relationships. Children Australia, 30(2), 33–37.

Oliver, B. R., & Pike, A. (2018). Mother-child positivity and negativity: Family-wide and child-specific main effects and interactions predict child adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 54(4), 744–756.

Rasbash, J., Jenkins, J., O’Connor, T. G., Tackett, J., & Reiss, D. (2011). A social relations model of observed family negativity and positivity using a genetically informative sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(3), 474–491.