Understanding how disasters influence infants and children

What is this resource about?

As climate change increases the number, frequency and severity of disasters such as bushfires, floods, cyclones and droughts in Australia, it is crucial to understand how disasters can influence infants and children’s lives – both immediately and in the longer term.

Experiencing a disaster can disrupt children’s sense of safety and their development, and significantly influence their physical and mental health, functioning and overall wellbeing. This practice paper explores the ways in which disasters may disrupt a child’s ecology – their family and other important relationships, places they learn and play, and their broader community and environment. It highlights the importance of addressing the potential for children to experience traumatic stress responses and mental health difficulties after a disaster, while also recognising children’s strengths, skills and resilience in overcoming challenges.

Every child’s response to a disaster is unique and shaped by a range of risk factors and protective factors. While many children exhibit temporary emotional and behavioural responses, some experience ongoing distress and significant disruptions to their development and wellbeing. Understanding the spectrum of potential responses to disaster helps practitioners identify children’s needs, and provide or refer them to appropriate support.

To support a child and their family after a disaster it is essential to see the ‘whole child’ and understand the disruptions disasters can create in various domains of their daily life. This practice paper aims to equip practitioners with knowledge about the ways disasters can influence a child’s ecology and the importance of targeted support for children’s resilience and recovery in the short and long term.

Key messages

• Disasters disproportionately impact infants and children because of their developmental stage and dependency on adults for care and protection. They are at greater risk than adults of harm to their physical and mental health, development and functioning after a disaster.
• A disaster can disrupt all aspects of an infant or child’s daily life, influencing their safety, relationships, learning, play, and physical and mental health. It can impact on various elements of their ecology, including their relationships, home, school or early learning service and community resources.
• Each child’s response to disaster is unique and influenced by age, developmental stage, individual circumstances and their ecology. Understanding a child’s unique characteristics, temperament and strengths, as well as the ways in which a disaster has impacted on their ecology, is key to ensuring appropriate and comprehensive support.
• Children commonly demonstrate both externalising (e.g. aggression, tantrums) and internalising responses (e.g. anxiety, withdrawal) as they strive to cope with disaster-related stress and uncertainty. These responses are part of the process of adapting to and recovering from a stressful event.
• Children who experience a disaster can recover and adapt with the support of responsive caregivers and timely and targeted psychosocial support tailored to their and their families’ needs.
• Regular monitoring allows for early identification of children showing signs of persistent distress or delayed reactions to disaster-related experiences.
• While children can recover without long-term mental health impacts, persistent or severe trauma responses may indicate the need for professional support.
• It is important for practitioners to recognise and respond post-disaster to diverse reactions across different ages and developmental stages, tailoring support to mitigate negative effects and support children to adapt to a ‘new normal’.
• Despite challenges, children across developmental stages can demonstrate remarkable resilience and strengths, using creativity, adopting coping strategies specific to their situation, and through accessing support to adapt after disasters. Some may even experience post-traumatic growth, developing new skills, deeper relationships, and a stronger personal identity.

Who is this resource for?

This practice paper is for anyone who is currently supporting, or could support, infants, children, parents and/or families – before, during or after a disaster. This includes practitioners and workers, leaders and volunteers in:

• health services
• social and community services
• education
• first response and emergency services
• government (policymaking and agencies)
• non-government organisations; and
• community-led initiatives.

For ease of reading, we will refer to individuals in all these roles as ‘practitioners’.

Definitions

The terms ‘children’, ‘parents’ and ‘practitioners’ are used throughout this resource and we define them in the following ways:

Children: includes newborn infants, babies and children aged up to 12 years old.

Parents: the biological, adoptive, foster and kinship carers of a child, as well as individuals who have chosen to take up primary or shared responsibility in raising that child.

Practitioners: all individuals with a role that involves or might involve supporting infants, children, parents, families and/or communities in the context of a disaster of any kind.

Direct/indirect support: Practitioners may offer direct or indirect support. Direct support provided to those affected by disasters refers to hands-on assistance, such as counselling, health care, evacuation assistance and disaster relief, provision of supplies and educational support. Indirect support involves behind-the-scenes activities that contribute to the wellbeing of affected individuals and communities, such as policy development, planning, coordination, training and advocacy.

The influence of disasters on children’s development, health and wellbeing is an ongoing concern in Australia, where disasters such as bushfires, floods, cyclones and droughts are becoming increasingly frequent and intense.

Current and future generations of Australian children are likely to experience multiple disasters and climate-related risks during their childhood (Deloitte Access Economics, 2024). Communities are also increasingly likely to experience multiple disasters, either concurrently (around the same time) or consecutively (one shortly after another) (CSIRO, 2022).

Disasters disrupt entire communities, but some groups are at greater risk of adverse impacts. Among those are infants and children, whose stage of development and dependency on adults render them particularly susceptible to harm.

Disasters also may impact on the ability to meet children’s basic rights – to survival and development, health, education, an adequate standard of living, and opportunities for recreation and play (United Nations General Assembly, 1989).

While children may experience temporary behavioural and emotional responses in the weeks and months after a disaster, a significant number will experience ongoing and significant challenges, distress and disruption to their lives, development, physical health and/or mental health. Children are at greater risk than adults of experiencing ongoing mental health difficulties after a disaster (Newnham et al., 2022). They have different perceptions of threat or harm related to their developmental stage and ability to understand and evaluate potential threats. Their fears may extend beyond themselves to their parents, friends, pets, nature, and even valued toys or belongings.

Children’s responses are shaped by their personal experiences during the disaster, but also by any difficult consequences for their parents and communities afterwards and disruptions to their broader ecology. For example, destruction or damage to schools and early learning services can impact on a child’s access to learning, peers and routines that support positive development and wellbeing.

In the aftermath of a disaster, children’s needs may be unrecognised by the adults and support systems around them (Caruana, 2010). The more time that passes after a disaster, the more likely children’s needs will be overlooked, even though the impacts can be long lasting. Parents and other supportive adults often reflect that their capacity to support children as much as they would like to is affected by the need to juggle many competing priorities during disaster recovery. Despite their best intentions, it is easy to overlook or misunderstand the experiences of children, particularly infants.

Importantly, children are not passive victims; they possess remarkable strengths and capacities that enable them to actively contribute to their own recovery and that of others. They use their skills, strengths and know-how to navigate the challenges they face, demonstrating resilience and agency in the aftermath of disasters. Children can adapt and find a new normal with support from their families, community and child-focused services that are targeted to their needs.

Understanding how disasters influence infants and children’s daily lives enables better identification of children’s and their families’ needs and triage of developmentally appropriate support in the short and long term. This paper offers practitioners information about the domains of children’s lives that may be influenced by disasters (their ecology), common responses (depending on a child’s age, development and context) and the importance of targeted support to reduce the risk of mental health difficulties.

The impact of any experience, including a disaster, on a child’s wellbeing is shaped by their individual characteristics (such as their age, development, strengths and capacities, genetics, temperament, physical and mental health) and by their ecology.

A child’s ecology refers to the intersecting biological, social, relational and environmental factors that surround them. These include:

• their relationships with their family members and other significant adults in their life (like grandparents and educators)
• their interactions in the places they live, learn and play
• events in their local neighbourhood, community and the wider world.

The following examples show some of the ways in which disasters can directly or indirectly disrupt a child’s ecology:

• Disruption of family relationships and dynamics due to stress and displacement.
• Psychological impacts on parents and other caregivers, such as educators, affecting their ability to provide consistent care and support.
• Damage or destruction of homes and neighbourhoods, affecting stability and sense of security.
• Closure or damage to schools and childcare facilities, disrupting learning and daily routines.
• Loss of community resources and support networks, reducing access to services and assistance.
• Exposure to community violence or increased conflict in strained environments.
• Environmental changes such as pollution, destruction of natural habitats or contamination of water sources.
• Economic hardships and financial instability affecting access to basic needs and healthcare services.
• Displacement to temporary accommodation or homelessness, disrupting continuity and familiarity.
• Disruption to broader societal assets such as breakdowns in infrastructure, governance and emergency response systems, impacting individual and community resilience and recovery.
• Experience of collective trauma within the community, where shared experiences of loss, fear and disruption contribute to a sense of collective distress and grief.

Considering the many different and intersecting parts of children’s lives that may be impacted by a disaster enables you to see the ‘whole child’ and their ecology. This can help you tailor support to effectively meet a child’s or family’s needs by addressing the interconnected biological, social, relational and environmental factors that shape their wellbeing and recovery.

In the following video (4 minutes, 6 seconds) practitioners and a parent whose family experienced a disaster talk about the ways in which the ecology around a child influences their wellbeing and recovery after a disaster.

Every child’s experience of, and reactions to, a disaster will be unique, depending on a range of personal, family, community and societal risk and protective factors. These factors can relate to a child’s individual characteristics, yet are strongly related to factors in their broader ecology.

Risk factors are characteristics or conditions that increase the likelihood of adverse outcomes for children when they face a disaster. Protective factors are characteristics or conditions that help children find stability and recover from the stress and adversity caused by a potentially traumatic event such as a disaster. Protective factors can reduce the influence of risk factors and promote resilience. You may be more familiar with the term ‘strengths and vulnerabilities’.

To understand how a disaster experience might influence a child’s wellbeing it is necessary to consider their unique risk and protective factors before, during and after the disaster. How a child experiences disaster and its aftermath depends on factors including their resources, previous adversities, how prepared they are for the event, and agency before, during and after it.

Risk factors experienced before, during and after disaster that can influence children’s mental health include:

Before disaster

• Disadvantaged neighbourhood
• Reduced access to healthcare or healthy food
• Reduced access to coping support
• Low family income and wealth
• Low family education level
• Presence of neighbourhood hazards
• Racial minority
• Single parent household
• Unsafe school

During disaster

• Child injured
• Community or neighbourhood destroyed
• Experience life threat
• Home destroyed
• Injury or death of loved one
• No or unsafe evacuation
• Separation from family
• Witness traumatic events

After disaster

• Reduced access to coping assistance
• Reduced access to social support
• Lack of stability
• Long-term displacement
• Missed school
• Parent or guardian distress
• Unsafe neighbourhood environment
• Unstable or unsafe living conditions (Fothergill & Peek, 2015)

Select the following headings to learn more about risk and protective factors that may shape an infant or child’s reaction to a disaster.

In the following video (6 minutes, 11 seconds) practitioners and a parent whose family has experienced several disasters describe various factors that shape a child’s experience of, and recovery after, a disaster.

Children’s experiences and reactions can be influenced by the actions we undertake to support children and families before, during and after disasters. Practice to support children can make a difference in preventing harm and ongoing difficulties in their health, development and functioning. The following resources include more about practices to support children across all of these phases:

It is also important to take action to support your own wellbeing as this work can be challenging. You can read more about strategies to support your wellbeing:

Many children will experience a disaster without any adverse effects on their physical health. However, their developing physiology and dependence on adults for protection means children are particularly vulnerable to injuries and other hazards posed by disasters.

Children’s risk of injury, malnutrition and illness is exacerbated if a disaster compromises sanitation, or local air or water quality. Infants are especially vulnerable due to their developing immune systems, higher respiratory rate, thinner skin and greater susceptibility to fluid loss and hypothermia (Lai & La Greca, 2020).

Young children who have experienced weather-related disasters such as storms and floods, or extreme heat, are at increased risk of asthma, respiratory illness, diarrhoeal disease and vector-borne disease. These health challenges can be accompanied by other serious indicators of the disaster’s impact including signs of malnutrition and stunted growth (Proulx et al., 2024).

To illustrate these the next section explores a practice scenario involving Noah, a six-month-old baby, who faced significant challenges after a cyclone devastated his family’s home. Listen to the following audio (1 minute, 29 seconds) to understand how Noah, his mother and their child health nurse navigated these challenges to support his wellbeing and recovery:

This scenario highlights the importance of providing tailored interventions and comprehensive care to mitigate the physical health impacts on infants and children in the aftermath of disasters.

Physical health effects in infants and children may be caused by distress. Children, including infants, may exhibit heightened somatic symptoms such as headaches, stomach upsets and listlessness – signs that may also point to underlying mental health stress (Veenemay et al., 2023). Some children may experience additional physical symptoms such as:

• fatigue
• dizziness
• chest pain
• changes in appetite
• nausea
• diarrhoea
• rashes
• muscle tension
• other unexplained pains.

These physiological symptoms often present without an identifiable medical cause, indicating they may be a physical expression of children’s emotional and psychological distress.

Health risks during pregnancy

It is also crucial to consider the potential risks of disasters to the physical health of pregnant people and to foetal development.

Exposure to potentially traumatic events in utero has been linked to adverse outcomes for newborns (Moss et al., 2017). These can include low birth weight, preterm birth and developmental delays, all of which can have long-term implications for a child’s health and wellbeing. Additionally, pregnant people experiencing disaster-related stress and anxiety may be at higher risk of complications during pregnancy, such as hypertension or gestational diabetes, further impacting both maternal and foetal health.

These risks highlight the need to provide tailored interventions and comprehensive care to prevent or reduce physical health impacts on infants, children and families including pregnant individuals in the aftermath of disasters.

Disasters can influence children’s development and functioning, including the skills and capacities that enable them to navigate relationships and participate in everyday life.

Child development encompasses all aspects of a child’s growth and learning: their physical, social, emotional, cognitive and communicative skills, and their ability to understand and engage with the world. Understanding the diverse ways in which children develop, including the developmental trajectories of neurodivergent children, is crucial for recognising their challenges and providing effective support after a disaster.

More resources

Disasters can interrupt children’s developmental processes, leading to challenges in social interactions, executive functioning and emotional regulation, in turn influencing children’s capacity to navigate daily life and engage in activities like play. Recognising and supporting these diverse needs, whether in neurotypical or neurodivergent children, is essential for supporting resilience and recovery.

To illustrate these points, listen to the following practice scenario through an audio case study (1 minute, 16 seconds) that examines how seven-year-old Ada’s play and emotional regulation were influenced by a disaster.

Children’s physical and mental health, developmental outcomes and functioning are interconnected. Disruptions to a child’s development as a result of a disaster can have lasting effects on their mental health and resilience. Importantly, there is a bidirectional relationship (flowing both ways), where mental health issues arising from disaster-related stress and trauma can also influence developmental outcomes and functioning.

For instance, anxiety or depression stemming from disaster-related stress can significantly impact emotional regulation, leading to increased emotional outbursts, challenges in self-soothing, and difficulties in establishing and maintaining relationships. Some children may become more unsettled and prone to irritability, while others might appear withdrawn or listless. These effects not only influence immediate functioning but also have the potential to shape long-term development, influencing mental health outcomes and resilience. Such factors can complicate a child’s recovery and adjustment to post-disaster circumstances, highlighting the need for comprehensive support strategies.

Understanding these dynamics is essential to comprehensively supporting children affected by disasters and promoting their recovery and healthy development. Select the following headings to read more about the ways that children’s development and functioning can be influenced by disasters:

In the following video (2 minutes, 30 seconds) practitioners describe some of the ways in which a disaster experience can influence children’s development and functioning.

Child development resources

Children’s mental health is dynamic and shaped by a variety of individual factors and life experiences. While some events may be nurturing, others can be inherently stressful. A child’s mental health can change depending on what’s going on in their life.

In the following video (2 minutes, 5 seconds) a parent with lived experience explains key things every adult should know about children’s mental health and ways we can nurture it.

Infants and children exposed to disaster show a wide spectrum of common reactions. Each child’s reaction will be unique, depending on their pre- and post-disaster risk and protective factors; disaster impacts in their ecology; and the support available to them.

The spectrum of potential reactions include:

You might see this full range of a child’s mental health experiences described as a mental health or wellbeing continuum. A child’s mental health or wellbeing continuum has positive, or ‘good’, mental health at one end, and mental health difficulties that have a significant influence on a child’s daily life and wellbeing at the other end. Different continuum models use different terms and symbols to show the range of children’s mental health experiences. Read more about the mental health or wellbeing continuum in Understanding children’s mental health. Some children report positive changes following a disaster, such as feeling more confident to help in a crisis (Royal Far West & UNICEF Australia, 2021). Children can develop their strengths and capacities, and build resilience in the context of nurturing, supportive relationships. Read more about resilience and post-traumatic growth in section 9.

It can be difficult to distinguish between mental health challenges and a temporary reaction to the stress of a disaster in the weeks, months and even years following such events. Overlapping symptoms such as anxiety, irritability and sleep disturbances can be common in both stress reactions and mental health conditions. Developmental variability including age and stage, temperament and each child’s different strengths and vulnerabilities also play a role in their diverse responses to trauma. Additionally, fluctuating responses are common: symptoms may appear, disappear and re-emerge over time, further complicating mental health assessment. Careful and ongoing observation, especially of infants and young children with limited communication skills, is necessary to accurately identify and address any underlying issues.

The following section explores the ways disasters can influence children’s social-emotional wellbeing and signs that an infant or child may require additional mental health support. While it provides an understanding of the variability in children’s responses to disasters and other potentially traumatic events, it is always necessary to understand the ecology and needs of individual children and their families.

Disruption and healthy adaptation

Major life disruptions and stressful events such as a disaster can trigger emotional responses and changes in behaviours.

It is expected and common for infants and children to experience changes in their pre-disaster behaviour and emotions, at least temporarily. In the immediate aftermath of a disaster this is typically part of the process of adaptation and recovery, rather than being indicative of a mental health condition.

Infants and young children, especially, are likely to show their distress through physical symptoms and behaviours rather than verbalising their feelings. In the following video (4 minutes, 4 seconds) Andrea Murray from the Queensland Centre for Perinatal & Infant Mental Health discusses some of the changes you may see in infants and young children after a disaster and some of factors that support them.

Experiencing a disaster can evoke many emotions in children of all ages. Children may feel fearful or anxious. For instance, they may express their fears through verbal communication, physical symptoms (e.g. stomach aches, headaches) or avoidance behaviours. They may also express grief and sadness in response to losses experienced during the disaster, such as:

• the death of a loved one, pet or animal
• destruction of their home or possessions that were significant to them
• the loss of familiar environments and routines.

Feeling confused or uncertain about what happened, why, and what will happen next is also common. Children may struggle to make sense of the disaster and its aftermath, leading to feelings of helplessness or despair. In turn, this can cause distress.

Expressing these emotions is an expected part of processing and responding to a stressful or potentially traumatic event. It can be distressing to witness the child’s response, but with nurturing care and support that meets their needs, children can adapt and heal.

Disasters can trigger a variety of behavioural changes in children of all ages, including infants. Withdrawal, regressive behaviours and increased agitation are common. In response to the stress and uncertainty of a disaster situation, children may become more irritable, easily frustrated or prone to temper outbursts. Some may also exhibit regressive behaviours, such as bedwetting, thumb-sucking or clinging to caregivers, as a way of seeking comfort and security during times of distress. Others may withdraw socially, become quieter and more reserved, or isolate themselves from peers and family members as they struggle to process their emotions and understand what has happened. Some children might engage in repetitive behaviours, such as rocking back and forth; repetitive play involving re-enactment of the disaster; or repeatedly asking the same questions about the event. These repetitive actions can be self-soothing mechanisms or attempts to regain a sense of control in a chaotic environment.

Externalising behaviours, such as yelling, running away, hitting and not responding to reasonable requests, are commonly observable reactions. However, it is important to be on the lookout for internalising behaviours that are less obvious including:

• being withdrawn or spending more time alone
• persistent and excessive worrying
• guilt or shame
• moodiness
• changes in sleep patterns
• loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities
• focusing on perfectionism.

A child who seems content and calm might be ‘internalising’ – that is, thinking about but not showing that they are having – distressing thoughts and difficult emotions. It is more difficult to recognise the need for support in children who are internalising their behaviours and emotions, because their behaviour is generally more compliant and less overtly demanding of a response.

Children may internalise by withdrawing rather than expressing their emotions to protect their distressed parents. Listen to the following audio (1 minute, 29 seconds) to learn how eleven-year-old child Harry is coping with the impacts of the bushfire on himself and his family by internalising his behaviour and emotions. Please note that while this demonstration is fictional, it is based on the lived experience of families and practitioners.

Children who are neurodivergent (such as those with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), or other developmental differences and disabilities) might have stronger reactions to the stress of a disaster. These children often feel safer with predictable routines and stable environments, so any changes can be very upsetting. For example, children with ASD might have more sensory sensitivities or find changes in routine very challenging, while children with ADHD might be more impulsive or have trouble focusing. It is important to provide support that meets their individual needs to help them cope after a disaster.

Behaviour is communication

Behaviour, as a communication of emotional expression, can be a powerful indicator of how a child is coping following a disaster. It helps to be curious and mindful of behavioural changes that signal the need for support or ongoing monitoring. These may be indicators of infants and children experiencing ongoing distress and overwhelm from the disaster. Such behaviour can be a sign they would benefit from extra nurturing and support, and possibly even support from a mental health professional.

While changes in emotions and behaviours may initially be distressing or challenging, they can represent healthy mechanisms for processing and responding to a highly stressful situation. However, they can also be early signs of mental health challenges. If changes persist, become severe, and/or significantly influence a child’s daily functioning, further professional support may be needed.

In the following video (5 minutes, 48 seconds) practitioners and a parent with lived experience discuss common behavioural and emotional changes in children who have experienced a disaster and what parents and practitioners can do in response.

Remaining attentive to children’s emotional and behavioural cues in the weeks, months and even years after a disaster is crucial, as these can provide valuable insights into their mental health and wellbeing.

More learning resources

Understandably, the fear and uncertainty often associated with disasters, and the sudden disruptions to daily life they cause, can lead to a stress response.

These changes may relate to the direct experience of the hazard, or the stressors caused by disruption, loss and changes secondary to the exposure to the hazard.

It is important to know that infants and children can experience distress or mental health difficulties related to a disaster that they have not directly experienced. Children may experience distress due to:

• their perception of current or future threats – for example, seeing or hearing media coverage of disaster impacts in a nearby town may lead a child to believe that their safety is also threatened.
• secondary impacts – for example, a parent losing their employment in an affected region, or homelessness due to a lack of available housing in their area following a disaster in a neighbouring town.
• preoccupation with hypothetical scenarios, where children may become fixated on ‘what if’ questions – for example, ‘What if my mum had been killed?’ or ‘What if that happened to me?’
• experiencing empathy-related distress – for example, hearing about the suffering of others, such as friends, classmates or pets/animals who have been directly affected by the disaster, may cause children to experience significant emotional distress.
• disruption through changes in the child’s daily routines or the routines of those around them – for example, school closures or changes in a parent’s work schedule.
• parental absence or stress – for example, a child whose parent is an emergency worker or community leader may experience anxiety and fear about their parent’s dangerous work, prolonged absence or stress brought home from their job.

A child’s stress response will be shaped by many factors including the severity and duration of the disaster, their proximity to the threat, and the adversity they experience as a result. The loss of loved ones, pets or familiar surroundings can lead to profound grief and distress. Their resources and the support they receive before, during and after the disaster will also influence a child’s response.

It is important to remember that children may react differently to potentially traumatic events based on their age, developmental stage, personality and previous experiences as well as the social, relational and environmental factors in their broader ecology.

The role of threat perception

An individual’s subjective appraisal of a disaster has a significant influence on their stress response. Subjective appraisal refers to how individuals, including children, perceive and assess the level of danger or harm posed by a disaster event.

A child’s perceptions of threat during a disaster may differ from those of the adults around them (McDonald et al., 2019). For example, a parent might be most worried about the threat to their property from the bushfire, while their child may be most distressed about being separated from their parent who chooses to stay and defend their property while the children are evacuated. Similarly, losses that may be perceived as less important to adults (e.g. the loss of a favourite item) may be of profound significance for a child (e.g. the loss of a comfort toy).

Listen to the following audio (1 minute, 27 seconds) describing a practice example where five-year-old Sophie shares her perceptions of the threat involved and navigates her experience of a storm with support.

Threat perception plays a crucial role in determining whether an experience is traumatic. Children’s interpretation of the disaster’s severity, their sense of personal safety and their expectations of future harm all influence their stress response. For example, if a child perceives their life or that of someone they care about to be in danger during a disaster it can have profound and lasting effects on their mental health (Trickey et al., 2012).

Disasters can also have lasting influence on children’s perceived sense of physical and psychological safety. Psychological safety involves feeling secure, both physically and emotionally, in one’s environment. It includes predictability and stability in relationships and surroundings. Importantly, psychological safety is subjective – this means children may feel unsafe even when objectively safe. If a disaster disrupts their sense of stability, children may continue to feel vulnerable, unsafe and anxious even after immediate threats have passed (Kousky, 2016).

During and after a disaster, children may show adaptive responses to overwhelming circumstances through survival instincts, like the ‘freeze, fight, flight or fawn’ response. This activation of the autonomic nervous system floods the body with biochemical responses, including adrenaline and cortisol, leading to heightened agitation and hypervigilance. Infants may exhibit ‘frozen watchfulness’, while older children might dissociate or appear constantly alert. Some children may react with heightened physical activity or aggression, indicative of their attempt to manage overwhelming feelings and threats to their safety.

Understanding traumatic stress responses

If a child’s experience during and after a disaster is severe, prolonged or deeply distressing, it can lead to a traumatic stress response. This response encompasses emotional and psychological reactions following exposure to a potentially traumatic event, sometimes presenting as physiological symptoms of distress without an identifiable medical cause. Such experiences not only disrupt immediate emotional and behavioural responses but can increase the risk of persistent mental health difficulties including anxiety, depression and PTSD (Lai & La Greca, 2020).

The range of potential traumatic stress response symptoms are illustrated in the following quote from clinicians in Royal Far West’s Community Recovery Program for children under 12 years old who have been affected by bushfires and floods:

Common responses in infants and children that may indicate a heightened risk of experiencing a mental health condition are:

The presentations of these behavioural changes will differ depending on where children are at in their development. The following fact sheets describe potential trauma responses across different age groups:

Monitoring children’s wellbeing and mental health

It is important to approach trauma responses in children with sensitivity and understanding. Remember, they can be temporary adaptations to stressful circumstances rather than signs of enduring mental health conditions.

However, with an estimated 30% of children and adolescents exposed to a disaster at risk of a diagnosable mental health condition (Newnham et al., 2022), and many more likely experiencing mental health challenges (i.e. subclinical level symptoms), it is important to monitor for trauma symptoms. Early identification of children who may benefit from targeted support to address mental health needs in the aftermath of a disaster is critical. This can be challenging as there is no definitive timeline in which to seek support, so referral (e.g. to a General Practitioner) or ongoing observation and consideration of a child’s unique experience and circumstances are also important.

Some indicators that a child may need further mental health support include:

• the symptoms experienced are severe
• the symptoms persist for more than one month or worsen over time
• a significant change from the child’s pre-disaster behaviour, emotions or functioning
• behavioural or emotional responses that prevent the child from engaging in age-appropriate tasks
• behavioural or emotional responses that are more intense or frequent than is typical of other children their age
• behavioural or emotional responses that disrupt others on a regular basis, particularly in their learning community or home environment
• the concerns exist in multiple contexts (e.g. the problem occurs at school and at home)
• parents have concerns about the child’s or family’s functioning, are overwhelmed by their child’s support needs, or are distressed by the situation.

Understanding trauma responses is key to effectively monitoring children’s reactions and providing timely support tailored to their age and development. Proactive support can mitigate the potential long-term negative influence of a disaster experience on children’s social, emotional, behavioural and physical development, and help children thrive.

More learning resources

While much of the research and concern about the influences of disasters on infants and children is focused on adverse effects, experiencing a disaster and navigating through its aftermath can lead to positive outcomes for infants, children, parents and communities.

We invited children in an art group to draw what they do, or things in their life that help them, to cope with challenges. As you view their artworks and hear their words in the following video (1 minutes, 5 seconds) think about anything you’ve noticed that children do when they are experiencing challenges, or to cope with stresses and big feelings.

With the right support and resources children and families can develop new, or expand existing, strengths and skills, reinforce their relationships and social networks, and build resilience through the recovery process.

Resilience

Resilience is the ability to recover, adjust to or grow in response to changes including adverse or challenging life experiences, like those brought about by a disaster.

A child’s resilience is strongly influenced by the presence of supportive relationships with trusted adults in their family and their community. These relationships help children to navigate challenges and stressful situations by:

• helping them to feel safe, secure and valued
• ensuring their basic needs are met
• providing psychosocial support; and
• teaching them skills to cope with life’s difficulties.

However, even without strong relational support children can develop resilience after disasters.

Resilience is a dynamic process rather than an outcome. Children’s ability to develop resilience is influenced by the interplay between their individual characteristics and the social, relational and environmental factors that make up their ecology. Children cannot fully recover from a disaster without the necessary resources and support, regardless of how resilient they are. Their recovery journeys are powerfully influenced by economic, social and structural factors that may either disadvantage or advantage them and their families, both before and after a disaster (Fothergill, 2017). Ensuring access to resources and support is therefore essential for fostering true resilience and recovery.

Developing resilience does not mean a child will not sometimes struggle or experience difficulties. They may demonstrate resilience by continuing to engage in daily activities and seeking support, even while experiencing mental health challenges and struggling academically after a disaster. Resilience may be shown in their determination to attend school, participate in community activities or maintain friendships despite their struggles. It is the continuous journey of coping and adapting with support that helps children develop resilience.

Post-traumatic growth

While it has been more commonly studied in adults, children also can experience post-traumatic growth following a disaster. Post-traumatic growth is a concept that suggests people can experience positive changes and personal growth as a result of overcoming challenging or traumatic events, including disasters (Bernstein & Pfefferbaum, 2018).

Post-traumatic growth refers to positive psychological changes – such as improved relationships or new perspectives – developed as a result of struggling with highly challenging life circumstances. For instance, children may develop stronger bonds with family members and friends, or a greater sense of purpose, during their recovery.

Post-traumatic growth can occur simultaneously with traumatic stress reactions. Children may still experience significant psychological distress in response to a disaster, but positive changes can emerge as they learn to cope and adapt.

Disasters typically disrupt entire communities, with profound consequences for the development and wellbeing of infants and children. Each child’s responses and resilience is shaped by the intersection of their individual experiences and their broader ecology, including their family, neighbourhood, school or early learning service and broader environment. Understanding the multiple and intersecting influences on infants and children after a disaster is crucial for providing effective support, especially to children experiencing concurrent or cumulative adversity.

Children who experience a disaster can recover with nurturing relationships, family support, access to resources and a supportive community. While children can recover well with sustained positive mental health, mental health challenges can vary in intensity and timing, with some children experiencing severe and persistent distress.

Early intervention and prevention are crucial. Practitioners can identify and address mental health needs, provide tailored interventions, and help children and families navigate the recovery process. By offering timely and appropriate interventions, practitioners can help children, parents, and families develop effective coping skills, mobilise resources, and address their ongoing needs, thereby promoting recovery and healthy adaptation in the aftermath of a disaster.

To learn more about how to support children before, during, and after disasters, access Emerging Minds’ other papers on preparedness, evacuations, psychological first aid, recovery and parenting in Supporting infants and children in disasters: A practice guide.

You may also like to take a look at the following resources:

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Belia, M., Keren-Portnoy, T., & Vihman, M. (2023). Systematic review of the effects of sleep on memory and word learning in infancy. Language Learning: A Journal of Research in Language Studies, 73(2), 621–651. DOI: 10.1111/lang.12544.

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Cao, J., Herman, A. B., West, G. B., Poe, G., & Savage, V. M. (2020). Unraveling why we sleep: Quantitative analysis reveals abrupt transition from neural reorganization to repair in early development. Science Advances, 6(38), eaba0398. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aba0398.

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Eagland, S., Curtin, M., & Parnell, T. (2024). After the disaster: Facilitating children to talk of their feeling and experiences. In International Perspectives on Early Childhood Education and Development (pp. 197-208). CHILD, 42. Springer Science and Business Media B.V.

Edwards, E. J., Campbell, M., Carroll, A., & Pennell, D. (2021). Best practice guidelines for wellbeing of staff and students after a disruption in Queensland schools. The University of Queensland.

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Gibbs, L., Nursey, J., Cook, J., Ireton, G., Alkemade, N., & Roberts, M., Gallagher, H. C., Bryant, R., Block, K., Molyneaux, R., & Forbes, D. (2019). Delayed disaster impacts on academic performance of primary school children. Child Development, 90(4), 1402–1412. DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13200.

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McGill, N., Curtin, M., White, J., Hodgins, G., Verdon, S., Parnell, T., Crockett, J., & Davison, W. R. (2022, December 1). Supporting children’s recovery from bushfires. Early Childhood Voices Conference 2022 paper. Charles Sturt University.

Moss, K. M., Simcock, G., Cobham, V., Kildea, S., Elgbeili, G., Laplante, D. P., & King, S. (2017). A potential psychological mechanism linking disaster-related prenatal maternal stress with child cognitive and motor development at 16 months: The QF2011 Queensland Flood Study. Developmental Psychology, 53(4), 629.

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